Photoperiodic determination of the male and female sexual morphs of Myzus persicae

The chronology of the photoperiodic determination of sexual morphs in holocyclic Myzus persicae was studied in the laboratory by transfer of synchronized batches of aphids between long-day (16 hr) and short-day (10 hr) régimes at a constant temperature of 20°C. The length of exposure to the short-day régime was measured in terms of the number of long dark-periods received by the aphids. The photoperiodic response extended over four generations (P, G₁, G₂, and G₃ respectively). When P generation aphids were given short days from the fourth instar, alate viviparae and males appeared successively in generation G₂, oviparae in G₃. Increasing the number of long dark-periods received during the development of G₂ embryos had a cumulative effect on the number which developed into alate viviparae. Determination of all the first-born G₂ aphids as alatae occurred only if their mothers had been exposed to the short-day régime throughout larval development. Alate viviparae gave birth to oviparae if they received a minimum of 4 long dark-periods, starting from a late stage in their embryonic development. The critical stage for ovipara determination in the G₃ embryo was on the sixth or seventh day after ovulation, more than half-way through embryonic development. G₂ aphids were determined as males before ovulation if their parents received 4 (in some circumstances only 3) long dark-periods. In the clones studied, male determination, once initiated in the G₁ parent, could not be reversed by later back-transfer to the long-day régime.     

Identification of quantitative trait loci affecting sex determination in the Eastern treehole mosquito (Ochlerotatus triseriatus)

Laboratory colonies of the eastern treehole mosquito (Ochlerotatus triseriatus (Say)) exhibit a consistent female-biased sex ratio. This is unusual among mosquito species, in which heritable sex ratio distortion is usually male biased and mediated by meiotic drive. Quantitative trait loci (QTL) affecting sex were mapped in an F(1) intercross to better understand the genetics underlying this female bias. In P(1) and F(1) parents and in 146 F(2) individuals with a female-biased sex ratio (106 females:40 males), regions of seven cDNA loci were analyzed with single-strand conformation polymorphism (SSCP) analysis to identify and orient linkage groups. Genotypes were also scored at 73 random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD)-SSCP loci. In addition to the sex locus, at least four QTL affecting sex determination were detected with interval mapping on linkage groups I and II. Alleles at the sex locus cumulatively accounted for approximately 61-77% of the genetic variance in sex. Alleles at QTL adjacent to the sex locus and at a QTL on the opposite end of linkage group I increased the proportion of females, but alleles at a QTL on linkage group I and a second QTL on linkage group II increased the proportion of males. The female-biased sex ratio observed in laboratory colonies of O. triseriatus is most easily explained by the existence of multiple female biased distorter loci, as have been observed in other Diptera.     

Sex without sex chromosomes: genetic architecture of multiple loci independently segregating to determine sex ratios in the copepod Tigriopus californicus

Sex‐determining systems are remarkably diverse and may evolve rapidly. Polygenic sex‐determination systems are predicted to be transient and evolutionarily unstable, yet examples have been reported across a range of taxa. Here, we provide the first direct evidence of polygenic sex determination in Tigriopus californicus, a harpacticoid copepod with no heteromorphic sex chromosomes. Using genetically distinct inbred lines selected for male‐ and female‐biased clutches, we generated a genetic map with 39 SNPs across 12 chromosomes. Quantitative trait locus mapping of sex ratio phenotype (the proportion of male offspring produced by an F2 female) in four F2 families revealed six independently segregating quantitative trait loci on five separate chromosomes, explaining 19% of the variation in sex ratios. The sex ratio phenotype varied among loci across chromosomes in both direction and magnitude, with the strongest phenotypic effects on chromosome 10 moderated to some degree by loci on four other chromosomes. For a given locus, sex ratio phenotype varied in magnitude for individuals derived from different dam lines. These data, together with the environmental factors known to contribute to sex determination, characterize the underlying complexity and potential lability of sex determination, and confirm the polygenic architecture of sex determination in T. californicus.     

Facultative and non‐facultative sex ratio adjustments in a dimorphic bird species

If parental allocation to each offspring sex has the same cost/benefit ratio, Fisher's hypothesis predicts a sex ratio biased towards the cheaper sex. However, in dimorphic birds there is little evidence for this, especially at hatching. We investigated the pre‐fledgling 1) sex ratio, 2) body condition and 3) sex‐differential mortality in a population of the glossy ibis Plegadis falcinellus, in southern Spain between 2001 and 2011. We defined two age groups for the period between hatching and fledging. We also compared pre‐fledgling with the autumn sex ratio. Metabolic rates were estimated by the doubly labeled water (DLW) technique to establish that sons (the bigger sex) were 18% more energy demanding than daughters, and to compute the predicted Fisher's sex ratio (0.465). As population size increased between years, body condition decreased in both sexes, and mortality increased more for daughters than sons prior to fledging. At the same time, the proportion of males among chicks close to fledging increased (average sex ratio: 0.606) while the proportion close to hatching decreased (average sex ratio: 0.434, in line with Fisher's prediction). Furthermore, the proportions of males at fledging and the following autumn were negatively correlated across years. We suggest that, as population density increased and conditions worsened the larger sex had relatively higher survival. These differences in survival produce a shift from a facultative female‐biased sex ratio at hatching into a non‐facultative male‐biased sex ratio of fledglings. Additionally, the excess of males at fledging was counterbalanced by sex‐related dispersal during the autumn. Overall, glossy ibis sex ratio is a product of a combination of facultative and non‐facultative adjustments triggered by environmental conditions, driven by rapid population growth, and mediated by highly interrelated life‐history traits such as body condition, mortality, and dispersal.     

Mutation in TERMINAL FLOWER1 reverses the photoperiodic requirement for flowering in the wild strawberry Fragaria vesca

Photoperiodic flowering has been extensively studied in the annual short-day and long-day plants rice (Oryza sativa) and Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana), whereas less is known about the control of flowering in perennials. In the perennial wild strawberry, Fragaria vesca (Rosaceae), short-day and perpetual flowering long-day accessions occur. Genetic analyses showed that differences in their flowering responses are caused by a single gene, SEASONAL FLOWERING LOCUS, which may encode the F. vesca homolog of TERMINAL FLOWER1 (FvTFL1). We show through high-resolution mapping and transgenic approaches that FvTFL1 is the basis of this change in flowering behavior and demonstrate that FvTFL1 acts as a photoperiodically regulated repressor. In short-day F. vesca, long photoperiods activate FvTFL1 mRNA expression and short days suppress it, promoting flower induction. These seasonal cycles in FvTFL1 mRNA level confer seasonal cycling of vegetative and reproductive development. Mutations in FvTFL1 prevent long-day suppression of flowering, and the early flowering that then occurs under long days is dependent on the F. vesca homolog of FLOWERING LOCUS T. This photoperiodic response mechanism differs from those described in model annual plants. We suggest that this mechanism controls flowering within the perennial growth cycle in F. vesca and demonstrate that a change in a single gene reverses the photoperiodic requirements for flowering.     

Seasonal sex ratio and unbalanced investment sex ratio in the Banksia bee Hylaeus alcyoneus

Abstract 1. Hylaeus alcyoneus is an endemic solitary bee common on coastal heaths of Western Australia. The bee is unusual in that males are larger than females. This size dimorphism presents an opportunity to test the theory of resource-dependent sex allocation, in which theory predicts that when resources are low the sex ratio should be biased towards the smaller sex. In most bees, females are larger than males and, in line with theoretical prediction, sex ratios are male biased when resources are scarce.
2. The emerging sex ratio and brood mass from a natural population of H. alcyoneus using trap nests was studied over two seasons (1999, 2000). A switch from a male- to a female-biased sex ratio through the season was found, which was related to a reduced floral resource.
3. Fisherian sex ratio theory predicts that total investment in each sex throughout a season should be equal and that the sex ratio should be biased towards the smaller sex. By measuring the mass of the emerging progeny, the total investment was found to favour males. Possible explanations for this bias in investment are discussed.     

Seasonal shifts in sex ratios of fledgling American kestrels (Falco sparverius paulus): The Early Bird Hypothesis

We document a seasonal shift in the sex ratios of broods produced by resident southeastern American kestrels (Falco sparverius paulus) breeding in nest boxes in Florida. Early in the breeding season, most biased broods were biased towards males, whereas later in the season, most biased broods were biased towards females. Computer-simulated broods subjected to sex-biased egg and/or nestling mortality demonstrate that it is possible that differential mortality produced the pattern of bias that we observed. However, these simulations do not exclude the possibility that female kestrels were manipulating the primary sex ratio of the broods. We present evidence that this sex ratio shift is adaptive: for males we detected breeding as yearlings, all had fledged early the previous season. No such relationship between season and the probability of breeding as a yearling was found for females. We propose the Early Bird Hypothesis as the ecological basis for the advantage of fledg ing early in males. We hypothesize that pre-emptive competition among post-fledging, dispersing males for breeding sites confers an advantage to males fledged early in the season. This hypothesis may explain why a non-migratory population of the Eurasian kestrel (F. tinnunculus) and non-migratory American kestrels breeding in Florida (F. s. paulus) exhibit this seasonal shift in sex ratios, whereas migratory American kestrels (F. s. sparverius) breeding in Saskatchewan, Canada, do not. We discuss the relevance of the Early Bird Hypothesis for other animal species.     

Environmental sex determination in a splash pool copepod

The sex-determining mechanism has important demographic and genetic consequences by virtue of its effect on the population sex ratio. Here we investigate the effect of temperature dependent sex determination (TSD) on the primary sex ratio of the harpacticoid copepod, Tigriopus californicus . At the two experimental temperatures (15° and 22°C) used in this study, the primary sex ratio is almost always biased in favour of males. Higher temperatures induce masculinization and the change in sex ratio is not caused by differential mortality of the sexes. The mean level of TSD in the population is small (proportion of males increases by ~5% between 15° and 22°C) because only one-third of the families actually exhibit a significant sex-ratio response while the rest of the population is insensitive to temperature. A comparison of the primary sex ratio and the level of TSD between two locations reveals few differences among populations. Finally, individuals still exhibited TSD after having been maintained under constant temperature conditions in the lab for several generations. In addition the proportion of temperature-sensitive individuals remained unchanged. This suggests that the observed level of TSD is not an artefact of testing field-captured individuals in a novel laboratory environment. At this point the adaptive significance of temperature-dependent sex determination in T. californicus remains unknown.  © 2002 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2002, 76 , 511–520.     

Temperature and Photoperiodic Control of Development in the Green Shield Bug Palomena prasina (L.) (Heteroptera,Pentatomidae) in Leningrad Province

Thermal reaction norms for development (the lower temperature threshold, temperature sensitivity, and sum of degree-days) can show phenotypic plasticity in response to a combination of ecological factors. The goal of this study was to evaluate the degree of plasticity of the thermal reaction norms for development under different photoperiodic conditions in the green shield bug Palomena prasina. Experiments were conducted in 2015 and 2016. In 2015, two photoperiodic regimens (12 and 22 h of light per day) and five constant temperatures (20, 22, 24, 26, and 28°C) were used; a lower temperature of 16°C was added in 2016. There were no differences in the egg developmental time between the two photoperiodic conditions and across the two experiments. Under the short-day photoperiodic regimen, nymphal development was faster at all the temperatures and was characterized by greater thermal sensitivity and a higher temperature threshold than under the long-day photoperiod. Besides, the relationship between the developmental rate and temperature deviated from linearity at 26 and 28°C under short-day conditions. The adaptive nature of the observed nymphal response to photoperiodic conditions was confirmed by our phenological observations and an outdoor cage experiment. The adult body mass slightly increased with rising temperature under short-day conditions but did not depend on the temperature under long-day ones. Females were larger than males, and both sexes had a greater body mass under long-day conditions than under short-day ones. In 2015, the eggs for experiments were collected before mid-July, almost a month later than in 2016. Nymphs that hatched from the later eggs (in 2015) had significantly higher relative growth rates than the early-season nymphs (in 2016) at 20, 22, and 24°C under both photoperiods. This discrepancy between years was probably related to the maternal effect, namely, the difference in the female physiological age.

     

Biased sex ratios in the dioecious annual Croton texensis (Euphorbiaceae) are not due to environmental sex determination

At Arapaho Prairie, in the sandhills of western Nebraska, the dioecious annual Croton texensis (Euphorbiaceae) exhibits biased sex ratios. Moreover, the direction of bias changes from year to year: in 1994 the study population was significantly female biased, in 1995 and 1996 it was significantly male biased, and in 1997 and 1998 the sex ratio did not differ from 1 : 1. Such variation in the observed sex ratio in plants is frequently attributed to environmental sex determination (ESD), which is favored by natural selection if the rate of fitness gain across an environmental gradient is greater for one sex than the other. We performed experiments to determine: (1) whether variation in the sex ratio is correlated with environmental conditions, as would be expected if ESD is operating, and (2) whether ESD, if present, would be favored by natural selection. In a common garden experiment in which water and fertilizer were manipulated the sex ratio was marginally male biased in treatments in which water was added, but not different from 1 : 1 in other treatments. In field plots into which seeds were planted none of several soil characteristics, nor overall plot quality for C. texensis (measured as average plant biomass) were correlated with plot sex ratio. However, plots in which a large number of planted seeds emerged tended to be female biased. These results provide very weak evidence for sex ratio bias across an environmental gradient, and thus provide little evidence for ESD. Moreover, sex-by-environment interactions for fitness, which are required for the evolution of ESD, were absent for all measured variables. Thus, ESD does not appear to be favored by natural selection in this population. Instead, these biases may have been caused by differences between the sexes in germination and/or early mortality.     

Photoperiodic response of larvae of the yellow-spotted longicorn beetle Psacothea hilaris after removal of the stemmata

The role of the stemmata in photoperiodism has been examined in holometabolic insects, but the only reliable results in Coleoptera have been obtained in Leptocarabus kumagaii (Carabidae), the larvae of which do not respond to photoperiod without stemmata. In the present study, photoperiodism was examined in another coleopteran, Psacothea hilaris (Pascoe) (Cerambycidae), after surgical removal of the stemmata. Larvae reared under short-day conditions and transferred to long-day conditions on day 2 of the 5th instar pupated without further larval molts, whereas those continuously reared under short-day conditions underwent supernumerary molts and did not pupate. When the stemmata were removed on day 2 of the 5th instar, the larvae pupated under long-day conditions but did not do so under short-day conditions. However, under long-day conditions some underwent supernumerary molts before pupation. Larvae from which the sensilla trichodeum were removed showed a similar response to that of stemmata-deficient larvae, and larvae from which stemmata were removed at a younger stage (day 2 of the 4th instar) responded to photoperiod similarly to intact larvae. Thus, supernumerary molts under long-day conditions after removal of the stemmata were attributed to injury due to surgery, rather than a change in photoperiodic photoreception. Therefore, we conclude that larvae of P. hilaris show a photoperiodic response after removal of stemmata, in contrast to larvae of L. kumagaii.     

The effect of size and sex ratio experiences on reproductive competition in Nicrophorus vespilloides burying beetles in the wild

Male parents face a choice: should they invest more in caring for offspring or in attempting to mate with other females? The most profitable course depends on the intensity of competition for mates, which is likely to vary with the population sex ratio. However, the balance of pay‐offs may vary among individual males depending on their competitive prowess or attractiveness. We tested the prediction that sex ratio and size of the resource holding male provide cues regarding the level of mating competition prior to breeding and therefore influence the duration of a male's biparental caring in association with a female. Male burying beetles, Nicrophorus vespilloides were reared, post‐eclosion, in groups that differed in sex ratio. Experimental males were subsequently translocated to the wild, provided with a breeding resource (carcass) and filmed. We found no evidence that sex ratio cues prior to breeding affected future parental care behaviour but males that experienced male‐biased sex ratios took longer to attract wild mating partners. Smaller males attracted a higher proportion of females than did larger males, securing significantly more monogamous breeding associations as a result. Smaller males thus avoided competitive male–male encounters more often than larger males. This has potential benefits for their female partners who avoid both intrasexual competition and direct costs of higher mating frequency associated with competing males.     

Population structure leads to male‐biased population sex ratios under environmental sex determination

Spatial structure has been shown to favor female‐biased sex allocation, but current theory fails to explain male biases seen in many taxa, particularly those with environmental sex determination (ESD). We present a theory and accompanying individual‐based simulation model that demonstrates how population structure leads to male‐biased population sex ratios under ESD. Our simulations agree with earlier work showing that the high productivity of female‐producing habitats creates a net influx of sex‐determining alleles into male‐producing habitats, causing larger sex ratio biases, and lower productivity in male‐producing environments (Harts et al. 2014). In contrast to previous findings, we show that male‐biasing habitats disproportionately impact the global sex ratio, resulting in stable male‐biased population sex ratios under ESD. The failure to detect a male bias in earlier work can be attributed to small subpopulation sizes leading to local mate competition, a condition unlikely to be met in most ESD systems. Simulations revealed that consistent male biases are expected over a wide range of population structures, environmental conditions, and genetic architectures of sex determination, with male excesses as large as 30 percent under some conditions. Given the ubiquity of genetic structure in natural populations, we predict that modest, enduring male biased allocation should be common in ESD species, a pattern consistent with reviews of ESD sex ratios.     

Alternative mating strategies,partial sibmating and split sex ratios in haplodiploid species

It is shown that when females can adjust their offspring sex ratios conditionally to the identity of their mates, i.e. sib or non-sib, split sex ratios are expected. These split sex ratios result from variation in relatedness between females and their daughters. Haplodiploid females' relatedness to their daughters increases as their relatedness to their mates increases. Therefore, sibmated females' optimal progeny sex ratio is more female biased than that of outbred females. Inbreeding depression that can result from complementary sex determination (CSD) is also considered. The genetic load caused by CSD can be so costly to sibmated females that they switch to the production of males only. The evolutionarily stable sex ratios for a sibmating model is found to be of a weak type. These weak equilibria and split sex ratios can lead to high variation about the mean and are an incentive for further studies on sex ratio variation in conjunction with mating behaviour. The occurrence of split sex ratios in haplodiploid taxa is important because it favours the evolution of eusociality. Partial local mating and alternative mating strategies can thus eventually lead to the evolution of eusociality.     

Induction of reproductive diapause via perception of photoperiod through the compound eyes in the adult blow fly, Protophormia terraenovae

Covering and surgical removal of the compound eyes were performed to localize photoreceptors for photoperiodic responses in the blow fly Protophormia terraenovae (Diptera, Calliphoridae). Adult females showed a long-day photoperiodic response to control reproductive diapause. When the compound eyes were bilaterally covered with silver paint, diapause incidence increased under diapause-preventing conditions, i.e., a long-day photoperiod and constant light, as though flies were kept under constant darkness. Neither silver painting on a medial region of the head capsule nor control painting in which both compound eyes were painted in a clear solvent caused significant effects on diapause incidence. Unilateral painting of the compound eye caused an increment of diapause incidence under constant light but no effects under a long-day photoperiod. When the compound eyes were bilaterally removed, all the flies developed their ovaries both under a long-day and a short-day photoperiod. Unilateral removal of the compound eye also caused ovarian development under a short-day photoperiod, whereas removal of one antennal lobe or all ocelli caused no effects on diapause incidence. Since P. terraenovae completely lost responsiveness to photoperiod after blinding of the compound eyes, it is likely that this fly perceives photoperiod through its compound eyes. Accepted: 18 February 1997     

Photoperiodic control of adult diapause in the predacious mite, Amblyseius potentillae: repeated diapause induction and termination

ABSTRACT. Photoperiodic control of facultative reproductive diapause was examined in females of the phytoseiid mite, Amblyseius potentillae (Garman). Full diapause was induced by rearing the mites from egg to adult under short-day photoperiods. Egg-laying females, however, which had experienced a long-day photoperiodic regime during pre-imaginal development, could still be induced to enter diapause when they were transferred to a short-day regime. Diapause development proceeded slowly under a short-day photoperiod, but was accelerated under long days. During diapause development under short days the photoperiodic sensitivity of the females diminished gradually and ultimately disappeared completely. However, after completion of diapause, sensitivity to photo-period reappeared. A second diapause could be induced in post-diapause females under short-day photoperiods and completed again under long-day photoperiods. These results show that A. potentillae remains sensitive to diapause-inducing and diapause-averting daylengths during the adult stage and that a second diapause may be induced after completion of the first one.     

Relationship between photoperiod and secretion of the diapause hormone during larval stages of the silkworm, Bombyx mori L., reared on an artificial diet

The suboesophageal ganglion of the silkworm, Bombyx mori synthesizes sufficient diapause hormone to produce diapause eggs, regardless of the photoperiodic conditions experienced during the larval stages. When larvae destined to produce non-diapause eggs are implanted with the brain-suboesophageal ganglion complex from larvae which have been reared under short-day conditions, the resulting adults lay diapause eggs. The larvae receiving the complex from larvae reared under long-day conditions gave rise to adults which did not produce any diapause eggs. The brains from pupae which have been reared under long-day conditions show an activity inhibiting the secretion of diapause hormone by the suboesophageal ganglion. The mechanism through which the brain controls the secretion of diapause hormone from the suboesophageal ganglion can be modified by photoperiodic conditions during the larval stages.     

Offspring sex ratio and development are determined by copulation activity in Echinothrips americanus MORGAN 1913 (Thysanoptera: Thripidae)

The costs of parthenogenetic reproduction are more or less unknown in thrips. However, IPM strategies require an understanding of temporal and spatial life‐history variations and sex ratios. Hence, different circumstances with regard to mating and sperm storage, and their effects on the life history of the adults and progeny, were tested in Echinothrips americanus. Different conditions were investigated: (1) one female and one male with permanent access to each other, (2) one female and one male with limited access to each other, (3) one virgin male only, (4) one virgin female only and (5) two virgin females permanently associated. Mating or not mating has a significant effect on the longevity of females and males, and on female fecundity. As a result of tested condition (2), limited access has a positive effect on longevity of a male. On the other hand, permanent access (1) or no access to a female (3) leads to shorter longevity of a male. For a female with permanent access to a male (1), longevity and oviposition rate are reduced. In addition, test conditions of parents have a significant effect on developmental time of the offspring and their sex ratio. Compared to a female under condition (1), a female with limited access to a male (2) delivers offspring with a more male‐biased sex ratio, independent of the period of time after last male access. Concerning the time for development of the offspring, females under condition (2) and under condition (4) deliver an F1 generation with a shorter developmental time than those under condition (1). Therefore, E. americanus seems to have a feedback system, that is offspring in low male‐biased populations develop faster and generate an adapted sex ratio. Hence, the assumption of a lower infestation risk in arrhenotokous than in thelytokous parthenogenesis should be reconsidered.     

PHENOTYPIC PLASTICITY IN CHRYSOPERLA: GENETIC VARIATION IN THE SENSORY MECHANISM AND IN CORRELATED REPRODUCTIVE TRAITS

A genetically variable sensory mechanism provides phenotypic plasticity in the seasonal cycle of the Chrysoperla carnea species-complex of green lacewings. The mechanism functions as a switch during the pupal and early imaginal stages to determine aestival reproduction versus aestival dormancy, and it has two major components: (1) response to photoperiod and (2) response to a stimulus(i) associated with the prey of the larvae. Ultimately, the switch is based on the response to photoperiod—an all-or-nothing trait whose variation (long-day reproduction versus a short-day/long-day requirement for reproduction) is determined by alleles at two unlinked autosomal loci. In eastern North America, variation in this component of the switch differentiates two reproductively isolated “species” that are sympatric throughout the region: Chrysoperla carnea, in which both loci are homozygous for the dominant alleles that determine long-day, spring and summer reproduction and thus multivoltinism, and C. downesi, which has a very high incidence of the recessive alleles for the short-day/long-day requirement, and thus univoltine spring breeding. In contrast, geographical populations in western North America harbor variable amounts of within-and among-family genetic variation for the photoperiodic responses and also for the switch's second component—adult responsiveness to the prey of the larvae. The geographic pattern of genetic variation in the two components of the switch indicates that it is a highly integrated adaptation to environmental heterogeneity. Expression of among-family variation in the prey component of the switch is highly dependent on photoperiodic conditions and genotype (it requires a constant long daylength and the recessive short-day/long-day genotype). Thus, we infer that responsiveness to prey evolved as a modifier of the photoperiodic trait. The switch has a significant negative effect on a major determinant of fitness; it lengthens the preoviposition period in nondiapausing reproductives. This negative effect may result in temporal variation in the direction of selection, which helps maintain genetic variability in the switch mechanisms of western populations. Also, the photoperiodic and prey components of the switch are positively correlated with fecundity in nondiapausing reproductives; however, the strong influence of environmental factors—presence or absence of prey—leaves open the question whether the correlated effects on fecundity are expressed in nature.     

Short-day and low-temperature conditions promote reproductive maturation in the terrestrial slug, Lehmannia valentiana

Terrestrial slugs (Lehmannia valentiana) collected from a field in Osaka, southwestern Japan, were reared under long-day (16-h light and 8-h darkness, LD 16:8) or short-day conditions (LD 12:12) at 15, 20, or 25 degrees C for 60 days. Slugs reared under short-day conditions were heavier than those reared under long-day conditions; however, slugs reared at 15 degrees C gained more weight regardless of the photoperiodic condition. Gonads were significantly heavier under short-day conditions than under long-day conditions, and oogenesis and spermatogenesis were also induced under short-day conditions. Under short-day conditions, reproductive maturation was suppressed at 25 degrees C as compared with 15 and 20 degrees C, whereas under long-day conditions, lower temperatures induced reproductive maturation. In contrast, slugs reared under short-day conditions at 20 degrees C from the time of hatching gained more weight than those reared under long-day conditions at the same temperature. Moreover, short-day conditions induced reproductive maturation, similar to that observed in the field-collected slugs. In conclusion, short-day and low-temperature conditions promoted growth and reproductive maturation, whereas long-day and high-temperature conditions suppressed them in L. valentiana. Thus, L. valentiana reproduces from late autumn to spring in Osaka.