Sensitivity of mitochondrial Mg++ flux to reagents which affect K+ flux

Effects on Mg⁺⁺ transport in rat liver mitochondria of three reagents earlier shown to affect mitochondrial K⁺ transport have been examined. The sulfhydryl reactive reagent phenylarsine oxide, which activates K⁺ flux into respiring mitochondria, also stimulates Mg⁺⁺ influx. The K⁺ analog Ba⁺⁺, when taken up into the mitochondrial matrix, inhibits influx of both K⁺ and Mg⁺⁺. The effect on Mg⁺⁺ influx is seen only if Mg⁺⁺, which blocks Ba⁺⁺ accumulation, is added after a preincubation with Ba⁺⁺. Thus the inhibition of Mg⁺⁺ influx appears to require interaction of Ba⁺⁺ at the matrix side of the inner mitochondrial membrane. Added Ba⁺⁺ also diminishes observed rates of Mg⁺⁺ efflux but not K⁺ efflux. This difference may relate to a higher concentration of Ba⁺⁺ remaining in the medium in the presence of Mg⁺⁺ under the conditions of our experiments. Pretreatment of mitochondria with dicyclohexylcarbodiimide (DCCD), under conditions which result in an increase in the apparentK _m for K⁺ of the K⁺ influx mechanism, results in inhibition of Mg⁺⁺ influx from media containing approximately 0.2 mM Mg⁺⁺. The inhibitory effect of DCCD on Mg⁺⁺ influx is not seen at higher external Mg⁺⁺ (0.8 mM). This dependence on cation concentration is similar to the dependence on K⁺ concentration of the inhibitory effect of DCCD on K⁺ influx. Although mitochondrial Mg⁺⁺ and K⁺ transport mechanisms exhibit similar reagent sensitivities, whether Mg⁺⁺ and K⁺ share common transport catalysts remains to be established.Abbreviations used: DCCD, dicyclohexylcarbodiimide; PheAsO, phenylarsine oxide.     

Activation of potassium-dependent H+ efflux from mitochondria by cadmium and phenylarsine oxide

Addition of Cd²⁺ or phenylarsine oxide (PhAsO) to respiring rat liver mitochondria results first in acidification of the medium (H⁺ efflux) followed by disappearance of H⁺ (discharge of the pH gradient or uncoupling). The first phase of H⁺ efflux is dependent upon the presence of K⁺ in the medium, and is not seen in the presence of valinomycin, which is consistent with the conclusion that H⁺ efflux is linked to membrane potential-dependent uptake of K⁺. These effects are abolished by low levels of 2,3-dimercaptopropanol but potentiated by excess of 2-mercaptoethanol, showing involvement of a dithiol type of group in the response. Mersalyl produces only the H⁺ efflux, and subsequent addition of Cd²⁺ or PhAsO produces collapse of the pH.Abbreviations BAL British Anti-Lewisite or 2,3-dimercaptopropanol - 2-ME 2-mercaptoethanol - PhAsO phenylarsine oxide - FCCP carbonylcyanide trifluoromethoxyphenylhydrazone - HEPES N-2-hydroxyethylpiperazine-N-2-ethanesulfonic acid     

Ba2+ uptake and the inhibition by Ba2+ of K+ flux into rat liver mitochondria

Summary Rapid uptake of Ba²⁺ by respiring rat liver mitochondria is accompanied by a transient stimulation of respiration. Following accumulation of Ba²⁺, e.g. at a concentration of 120 nmol per mg protein, the mitochondria exhibit reduced rates of state 3 and uncoupler-stimulated respiration. ADP-stimulated respiration is inhibited at a lower concentration of Ba²⁺ than is required to affect uncoupler-stimulated respiration, suggesting a distinct effect of Ba²⁺ on mechanisms involved in synthesis of ATP. Ba²⁺, which has an ionic radius similar to that of K⁺, inhibits unidirectional K⁺ flux into respiring rat liver mitochondria. This effect on K⁺ influx is observable at concentrations of Ba²⁺, e.g. 23 to 37 nmol per mg protein, which cause no significant change in state 4 or uncoupler-stimulated respiration. The accumulated Ba²⁺ decreases the measuredV _max of K⁺ influx, while having little effect on the apparentK _m for K⁺. The inhibition of K⁺ influx by Ba²⁺ is seen in the presence and absence of mersalyl, an activator of K⁺ influx. In contrast, under the conditions studied, Ba²⁺ has no apparent effet on the rate of unidirectional K⁺ efflux. These data are consistent with the idea that K⁺ may enter and leave mitochondria via spearate mechanisms.     

Effect of mersalyl on mitochondrial Mg++ flux

The mercurial mersalyl has little effect either on rapid Mg⁺⁺ binding by isolated rat liver mitochondria or on the total Mg⁺⁺ content of these organelles measured after 0.75 min of incubation at 20°C. The data do not support the previous suggestion that the increased permeability to K⁺ of mitochondria treated with mersalyl results from release of endogenous Mg⁺⁺. An increased pH-dependence of unidirectional Mg⁺⁺ flux into respiring rat liver mitochondria is suggested to arise indirectly from inhibition by mersalyl of pH shifts associated with exchanges of endogenous phosphate. In addition, mersalyl appears to have a stimulatory effect on Mg⁺⁺ influx. Mersalyl also increases the average rate of unidirectional efflux of endogenous Mg⁺⁺. The stimulatory effects of mersalyl on Mg⁺⁺ flux are similar to, although quantitatively less than, the previously reported effects of mersalyl on mitochondrial K⁺ flux.     

Some effects of dibutylchloromethyltin chloride and other reagents on mitochondrial K+ flux

Respiration-dependent K⁺ fluxes across the limiting membranes of isolated rat liver mitochondria, measured by means of⁴²K, are stimulated by the oxidative phosphorylation inhibitor dibutylchloromethyltin chloride (DBCT). A lack of effect of Cl^– concentration indicates that the stimulation of K⁺ flux by DBCT is not attributable to Cl^–/OH^– exchange activity. The mercurial mersalyl was previously shown to stimulate respiration-dependent K⁺ influx. The combined presence of mersalyl plus DBCT results in a greater stimulation of K⁺ influx than is caused by either DBCT or mersalyl alone. The oxidative phosphorylation inhibitor oligomycin, which alone has no effect on respiration-dependent K⁺ influx, enhances the stimulatory effect of mersalyl on K⁺ influx. The data are consistent with, although not proof of, a direct interaction of the K⁺ transport mechanism with the mitochondrial energy transduction apparatus.Abbreviations used: DCCD,N,N-dicyclohexylcarbodiimide; DBCT, dibutylchloromethyltin chloride.     

Effects of some protein-reactive compounds on K+ flux into mitochondria

The pathway of unidirectional K+ flux into respiring mitochondria is sensitive to the protein reactive compounds mersalyl and dicyclohexylcarbodiimide (DCCD). When treated with either of these reagents, mitochondria retain sensitivity to other reagents which affect K+ flux into untreated mitochondria. The present studies show that the K+ influx mechanism modified by pretreatment with DCCD remains sensitive to inhibition by quinine. K+ influx stimulated by mersalyl, in the absence of exogenous Ca++, retains sensitivity to inhibition by quinine and to some extent by Mg++. The results support the conclusion that K+ uptake by mitochondria modified by mersalyl or DCCD occurs via the same proteinaceous pathway as that which mediates K+ uptake by untreated mitochondria.     

Mitochondrial K + transport: effect of N-ethyl maleimide on 42 K flux

The energy-linked flux of K⁺ into rat liver mitochondria is found to be stimulated by the sulfhydryl reagent, N-ethyl maleimide. The stimulation of K⁺ influx by N-ethyl maleimide is observed only at alkaline external pH. N-ethyl maleimide also stimulates efflux of K⁺ from the mitochondria. The stimulation by N-ethyl maleimide of K⁺ influx, but not K⁺ efflux, is dependent on the availability of metabolic energy. It is suggested that the effect of N-ethyl maleimide on K⁺ influx may be secondarily the result of an inhibition of phosphate-hydroxyl exchange. The dependence of energy-linked K⁺ influx on the external pH may be interpreted as evidence for a role of OH^? as a counterion accompanying K⁺ through the mitochondrial pump mechanism.     

Respiration-dependent contraction of swollen heart mitochondria: Participation of the K+/H+ antiporter

Respiration-dependent contraction of heart mitochondria swollen passively in K⁺ nitrate is activated by the ionophore A23187 and inhibited by Mg²⁺. Ion extrusion and osmotic contraction under these conditions are strongly inhibited by quinine, a known inhibitor of the mitochondrial K⁺/H⁺ antiporter, as measured in other systems. The inhibition by quinine is relieved by the exogenous antiporter nigericin. Respiration-dependent contraction is also inhibited by dicyclohexylcarbodiimide (DCCD) when reacted under conditions known to inhibit K⁺/H⁺ antiport (Martinet al., J. Biol. Chem. 259, 2062–2065, 1984). These studies strongly support the concept that K⁺ is extruded from the matrix by the endogenous K⁺/H⁺ antiporter and that inhibition of this component by quinine or DCCD inhibits respiration-dependent contraction. The extrusion of K⁺ nitrate is accompanied by a respiration-dependent efflux of a considerable portion of the endogenous Mg²⁺. This Mg²⁺ efflux does not occur in the presence of nigericin or when the mitochondrial Na⁺/H⁺ antiporter is active. Mg²⁺ efflux may take place on the K⁺/H⁺ antiporter. DCCD, reacted under conditions that do not result in inhibition of the K⁺/H⁺ antiporter, blocks a monovalent cation uniport pathway. This uniport contributes to futile cation cycling at elevated pH, and its inhibition by DCCD stimulates respiration-dependent contraction.     

Ouabain-resistant Na+, K+ transport system in mouse NIH 3T3 cells

Summary It is shown that the ouabain-resistant (OR) furosemide-sensitive K⁺(Rb⁺) transport system performs a net efflux of K⁺ in growing mouse 3T3 cells. This conclusion is based on the finding that under the same assay conditions the furosemidesensitive K⁺(Rb⁺) efflux was found to be two- to threefold higher than the ouabain-resistant furosemide-sensitive K⁺(Rb⁺) influx. The oubain-resistant furosemide-sensitive influxes of both²²Na and⁸⁶Rb appear to be Cl^– dependent, and the data are consistent with coupled unidirectional furosemide-sensitive influxes of Na⁺, K⁺ and Cl^– with a ratio of 1 1 2. However, the net efflux of K⁺ performed by this transport system cannot be coupled to a ouabain-resistant net efflux of Na⁺ since the unidirectional ouabain-resistant efflux of Na⁺ was found to be negligible under physiological conditions. This latter conclusion was based on the fact that practically all the Na⁺ efflux appears to be ouabainsensitive and sufficient to balance the Na⁺ influx under such steady-state conditions. Therefore, it is suggested that the ouabain-resistant furosemide-sensitive transport system in growing cells performs a facilitated diffusion of K⁺ and Na⁺, driven by their respective concentration gradients: a net K⁺ efflux and a net Na⁺ influx.     

Inhibition of coupling factor B activity by cadmium ion, arsenite-2,3-dimercaptopropanol, and phenylarsine oxide, and preferential reactivation by dithiols

Coupling factor B activity was measured by the stimulation of the ATP-driven NAD+ reduction by succinate or the 32Pi-ATP exchange activity of Factor B-depleted submitochondrial particles. Half-maximal coupling activity was inhibited by 30 microM cadmium, 5 microM phenylarsine oxide, or 0.3 mM arsenite-2,3-dimercaptopropanol. The inhibition was relieved by slight excess of dithiol but not by a 10-fold molar excess of 2-mercaptoethanol. Inhibition of coupling activity by phenylarsine oxide or cadmium was not due to interference in binding of Factor B to depleted particles. Isolated Factor B binds phenylarsine oxide resulting in loss of ability to stimulate depleted submitochondrial particles. The inhibition was largely overcome by dithiol but not by monothiols. The residual coupling activity of depleted submitochondrial particles was highly resistant to cadmium or arsenical. Moreover, binding of arsenical to the depleted particles per se, did not result in inhibition of Factor B-stimulated activity. Furthermore, the addition of phenylarsine oxide to H+-ATPase resulted in loss of Pi-ATP exchange and stimulation of oligomycin-sensitive ATPase activities. Both effects were further potentiated by 2-mercaptoethanol and reversed by dithiols. These effects parallel uncoupling of oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria by these inhibitors and point to Factor B as the probable component sensitive to these inhibitors.     

Energy-dependence exchange of K+ in heart mitochondria. K+ efflux.

The efflux ⁴²K⁺ from isolated beef heart mitochondria under conditions of near steadystate K⁺ is increased by repiration and is sensitive to uncouplers and to exogenous Mg² The respiration-dependent efflux is strongly activated by inorganic phosphate in the presence of external K⁺, but not Na⁺, and is inhibited by oxidative phosphorylation. Low concentrations of mersalyl also activate respiration-dependent efflux of ⁴²K⁺ in the absence of net alteration in matrix K⁺. Acetate in the presence of mersalyl brings about net accumulation of K⁺ with retention of internal ⁴²K⁺. The results are consistent with a model in which nearly constant matrix K⁺ is maintained by the regulated interplay between a K⁺ uniport (which is responsive to membrane potential and which is the pathway for K⁺ influx) and a $\text{K}{}^{\mathrm{+}}\text{H}{}^{\mathrm{+}}$ exchanger (which responds to the transmembrane pH differential and which is the pathway for net K⁺ efflux).     

Interacting effects of dibutylchloromethyltin chloride, 2,3-dimercaptopropanol,and other reagents on mitochondrial respiration and K+ flux

The oxidative phosphorylation inhibitor DBCT (dibutylchloromethyltin chloride) inhibits state 3 respiration at a concentration less than that which stimulates K+ flux into respiring rat liver mitochondria. Inhibition of ADP-stimulated respiration by DBCT can be reversed or blocked by the dithiol 2,3-dimercaptopropanol. The data are consistent with previous suggestions that DBCT may interact with the ATP synthase via reaction with a dithiol group. The stimulation of K+ influx by DBCT is partially reversed by concentrations of 2-mercaptoethanol which fail to affect the inhibition of state 3 respiration by DBCT. The combination of DBCT plus 2,3-dimercaptopropanol inhibits mitochondrial K+ influx. The inhibitory effect of dicyclohexylcarbodiimide on K+ influx is not expressed in the presence of DBCT. Atractyloside has little effect on K+ influx in the presence or absence of DBCT. The combination of DBCT plus uncoupler induces a net loss of endogenous K+. Consideration is given to the alternative hypotheses that the acceleration of K+ influx by DBCT may involve either a direct link to the energy transduction apparatus, or may occur via separate activation of a passive transport mechanism.     

Ion permeability induction by the SH cross-linking reagents in rat liver mitochondria is inhibited by the free radical scavenger,butylhydroxytoluene

The hydrophobic, potentially SH cross-linking reagent, phenylarsine oxide (PhAsO), was found to induce K⁺ and Ca²⁺ effluxes from mitochondria and to accelerate the respiration rate in state 4. The hydrophobic monofunctional electrophilic agent,N-ethylmaleimide, does not exhibit this effect but prevents the action of PhAsO. The polar potentially SH cross-linking reagents (arsenite, diamide) induce ion fluxes only in the presence of P_i. Ion fluxes induced by the SH reagents are inhibited by butylhydroxytoluene (an inhibitor of free radical reactions), andN,N-dicyclohexylcarbodiimide, not by oligomycin. It is inferred that the induction of ion fluxes in mitochondria caused by cross-linking of two juxtaposed SH groups is related to the development of free radical reactions.Abbreviations PhAsO phenylarsine oxide - NEM N-ethylmaleimide - HEPES N-2-hydroxyethylpiperazine-N-ethanesulfonic acid - RR ruthenium red - CCCP carbonyl cyanide-m-chlorophenylhydrazone - BHT butylhydroxytoluene - DCCD N,N-dicyclohexylcarbodiimide - DTNB 5,5-dithio-bis-2-nitrobenzoic acid - diamide diazenedicarboxylic acid-bis-dimethyl-amide - mersalyl O-[3-hydroxymercuri)-2-methoxypropyl) carbamoylphenoxyacetic acid - DTE dithioerythritol     

Na+, K+, Cl− cotransport and its regulation in Ehrlich ascites Tumor cells. Ca2+/Calmodulin and protein kinase C dependent pathways

Summary Net Cl^– uptake as well as unidirectional³⁶Cl influx during regulatory volume increase (RVI) require external K⁺. Half-maximal rate of bumetanide-sensitive³⁶Cl uptake is attained at about 3.3mm external K⁺. The bumetanide-sensitive K⁺ influx found during RVI is strongly dependent on both Na⁺ and Cl^–. The bumetanide-sensitive unidirectional Na⁺ influx during RVI is dependent on K⁺ as well as on Cl^–. The cotransporter activated during RVI in Ehrlich cells, therefore, seems to transport Na⁺, K⁺ and Cl^–. In the presence of ouabain and Ba⁺ the stoichiometry of the bumetanide-sensitive net fluxes can be measured at 1.0 Na⁺, 0.8 K⁺, 2.0 Cl^– or approximately 1 : Na, 1 : K, 2 : Cl. Under these circumstances the K⁺ and Cl^– flux ratios (influx/efflux) for the bumetanide-sensitive component were estimated at 1.34 ±0.08 and 1.82 ± 0.15 which should be compared to the gradient for the Na⁺, K⁺, 2Cl^– cotransport system at 1.75 ± 0.24.Addition of sucrose to hypertonicity causes the Ehrlich cells to shrink with no signs of RVI, whereas shrinkage with hypertonic standard medium (all extracellular ion concentrations increased) results in a RVI response towards the original cell volume. Under both conditions a bumetanide-sensitive unidirectional K⁺ influx is activated. During hypotonic conditions a small bumetanide-sensitive K⁺ influx is observed, indicating that the cotransport system is already activated.The cotransport is activated 10–15 fold by bradykinin, an agonist which stimulates phospholipase C resulting in release of internal Ca²⁺ and activation of protein kinase C.The anti-calmodulin drug pimozide inhibits most of the bumetanide-sensitive K⁺ influx during RVI. The cotransporter can be activated by the phorbol ester TPA. These results indicate that the stimulation of the Na⁺, K⁺, Cl^– cotransport involves both Ca²⁺/calmodulin and protein kinase C.     

Calcium transport by corn mitochondria : evaluation of the role of phosphate

Mitochondria from some plant tissues possess the ability to take up Ca²⁺ by a phosphate-dependent mechanism associated with a decrease in membrane potential, H⁺ extrusion, and increase in the rate of respiration (AE Vercesi, L Pereira da Silva, IS Martins, CF Bernardes, EGS Carnieri, MM Fagian [1989] In G Fiskum, ed, Cell Calcium Metabolism. Plenum Press, New York, pp 103-111). The present study reexamined the nature of the phosphate requirement in this process. The main observations are: (a) Respiration-coupled Ca²⁺ uptake by isolated corn (Zea mays var Maya Normal) mitochondria or carbonyl cyanide p-trifluoromethoxyphenylhydrazone-induced efflux of the cation from such mitochondria are sensitive to mersalyl and cannot be dissociated from the silmultaneous movement of phosphate in the same direction. (b) Ruthenium red-induced efflux is not affected by mersalyl and can occur in the absence of phosphate movement. (c) In Ca²⁺-loaded corn mitochondria, mersalyl causes net Ca²⁺ release unrelated to a decrease in membrane potential, probably due to an inhibition of Ca²⁺ cycling at the level of the influx pathway. It is concluded that corn mitochondria (and probably other plant mitochondria) do possess an electrophoretic influx pathway that appears to be a mersalyl-sensitive Ca²⁺/inorganic phosphate-symporter and a phosphate-independent efflux pathway possibly similar to the Na²⁺-independent Ca²⁺ efflux mechanism of vertebrate mitochondria, because it is not stimulated by Na⁺.     

Effect of ATPase inhibitors on cell potential and k influx in corn roots

Experiments were performed to determine the effect of plasmalemma ATPase inhibitors on cell potentials (Ψ) and K⁺ (⁸⁶Rb) influx of corn root tissue over a wide range of K⁺ activity. N,N′Dicyclohexylcarbodiimide (DCCD), oligomycin, and diethylstilbestrol (DES) pretreatment greatly reduced active K⁺ influx and depolarized Ψ at low, but not at high, K⁺ activity (K°). More comprehensive studies with DCCD and anoxia showed nearly complete inhibition of the active component of K⁺ influx over a wide range of K°, with no effect on the apparent permeability constant. DCCD had no effect on the electrogenic component of the cell potential (Ψ_p) above 0.2 millimolar K°. Net proton efflux was rapidly reduced 80 to 90% by DCCD. Since tissue ATP content and respiration were only slightly affected by the DCCD-pretreatment, the inhibitions of active K⁺ influx and Ψ_p at low K° can be attributed to inhibition of the plasmalemma ATPase.     

On the Opening of an Insensitive Cyclosporin A Non-specific Pore by Phenylarsine Plus Mersalyl

The purpose of this work was addressed to provide new information on the effect of thiol reagents on mitochondrial non-specific pore opening, and its response to cyclosporin A (CSA). To meet this proposal phenylarsine oxide (PHA) and mersalyl were employed as tools to induce permeability transition and CSA to inhibit it. PHA-induced mitochondrial dysfunction, characterized by Ca²⁺ efflux, swelling, and membrane de-energization, was inhibited by N-ethylmaleimide and CSA. Conversely, mersalyl failed to inhibit the inducing effect of phenylarsine oxide, it rather strengthened it. In addition, the effect of mersalyl was associated with cross-linking of membrane proteins. The content of membrane thiol groups accessible to react with PHA, mersalyl, and PHA plus mersalyl was determined. In all situations, permeability transition was accompanied by a significant decrease in the whole free membrane thiol content. Interestingly, it is also shown that mersalyl hinders the protective effect of cyclosporin A on PHA-induced matrix Ca²⁺ efflux.     

Effects of quinine on K+ transport in heart mitochondria

Quinine inhibits the respiration-dependent extrusion of K⁺ from Mg²⁺-depleted heart mitochondria and the passive osmotic swelling of these mitochondria in K⁺ and Na⁺ acetate at alkaline pH. These observations concur with those of Nakashima and Garlid (J. Biol. Chem. 257, 9252, 1982) using rat liver mitochondria. Quinine also inhibits the respiration-dependent contraction of heart mitochondria swollen passively in Na⁺ or K⁺ nitrate and the increment of elevated respiration associated with the extrusion of ions from these mitochondria. Quinine, at concentrations up to 0.5 mM, inhibits the respiration-dependent⁴²K⁺/K⁺ exchange seen in the presence of mersalyl, but higher levels of the drug produce increased membrane permeability and net K⁺ loss from the matrix. These results are all consistent with an inhibition of the putative mitochondrial K⁺/H⁺ antiport by quinine. However, quinine has other effects on the mitochondrial membrane, and possible alternatives to this interpretation are discussed.     

An altered response of virally transformed 3T3 cells to ouabain

The effect of ouabain on K⁺ transport was examined in 3T3 and virally transformed 3T3 cells. A 10 min exposure to ouabain (10⁻³ M) produced approximately 40% inhibition of the unidirectional K⁺ influx in all cell lines. In 3T3 cells the response was not significantly altered by up to 70 min exposure to the drug. In contrast, the continued exposure of transformed cells to ouabain produced a time-dependent increase in the K⁺ influx. This increased influx was shown to be accompanied by an increase in the K⁺ efflux. The results suggest that, in transformed cells, ouabain produces both an inhibition of Na⁺-K⁺ exchange and a stimulation of K⁺-K⁺ exchange. The latter was shown to be more readily reversible than the former.     

Involvement of plasma membrane potential in the tolerance mechanism of plant roots to aluminium toxicity

H⁺-ATPase activity of a plasma membrane-enriched fraction decreased after the treatment of barley (Hordeum vulgare) seedlings with Al for 5 days. A remarkably high level of Al was found in the membrane fraction of Al-treated roots. A long-term effect of Al was identified as the repression of the H⁺-ATPase of plasma membranes isolated from the roots of barley and wheat (Triticum aestivum) cultivars, Atlas 66 (Al-tolerant) and Scout 66 (Al-sensitive). To monitor short-term effects of Al, the electrical membrane potentials across plasma membranes of both wheat cultivars were compared indirectly by measuring the efflux of K⁺ for 40 min under various conditions. The rate of efflux of K⁺ in Scout was twice that in Atlas at low pH values such as 4.2. Vanadate, an inhibitor of the H⁺-ATPase of the plasma membrane, increased the efflux of K⁺. Al repressed this efflux at low pH, probably through an effect on K⁺ channels, and repression was more pronounced in Scout. Al strongly repressed the efflux of K⁺ irrespective of the presence of vanadate. Ca²⁺ also had a repressive effect on the efflux of K⁺ at low pH. The effect of Ca²⁺, greater in Scout, might be related to the regulation of the net influx of H⁺, since the effect was negated by vanadate. The results suggest that extracellular low pH may cause an increase in the influx of H⁺, which in turn is counteracted by the efflux of K⁺ and H⁺. These results suggest that the ability to maintain the integrity of the plasma membrane and the ability to recover the electrical balance at the plasma membrane through a net influx of H⁺ and the efflux of K⁺ seem to participate in the mechanism of tolerance to Al stress under acidic conditions.