Recruitment of GLUT-4 glucose transporters by insulin in diabetic rat skeletal muscle

The cause of reduced insulin-stimulated glucose transport in skeletal muscle of diabetic rats was investigated. Basal and insulin-stimulated glucose uptake into hindquarter muscles of 7-day diabetic rats were 70% and 50% lower, respectively, than in nondiabetic controls. Subcellular fractionation of hindquarter muscles yielded total crude membranes, plasma membranes and intracellular membranes. The number of GLUT-4 glucose transporters was lower in crude membranes, plasma membranes and intracellular membranes, relative to non-diabetic rat muscles. These results were paralleled by reductions in D-glucose-protectable binding of cytochalasin B. Insulin caused a redistribution of GLUT-4 transporters from intracellular membranes to plasma membranes, in both control and diabetic rat muscles. This redistribution was also recorded using binding of cytochalasin B. The insulin-dependent decrement in glucose transporters in intracellular membranes was similar for both animal groups, but the gain and final amount of transporters in the plasma membrane were 50% lower in the diabetic group. The results suggest that insulin signalling and recruitment of GLUT-4 glucose transporters occur in diabetic rat muscle, and that the diminished insulin response may be due to fewer glucose transporters operating in the muscle plasma membrane.     

Nitric oxide (NO) is involved in modulation of non-insulin mediated glucose transport in chicken skeletal muscles

The biosynthesis and release of nitric oxide (NO) from skeletal muscle plays a crucial role in transport and utilization of glucose. There are, however, no reports concerning the effects of NO on the transport of glucose in skeletal muscles of chickens characterized by hyperglycemia and insulin resistance. The present study was undertaken to investigate whether a NO donor or a nitric oxide synthase (NOS) inhibitor influences basal or insulin-mediated glucose uptake in vivo in skeletal muscles of chickens. Single administration of NOC12, a NO donor at 1125 microg/kg body mass (BW) to 14 days old chicks caused an increase in plasma NO concentration, while it did not affect plasma glucose concentration. In contrast, a single injection of NOS inhibitor, NG-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME) at 300 mg/kg BW reduced plasma NO concentration, while it did not effect plasma glucose concentration. Chicks were also treated with or without NO modifier and/or insulin to estimate glucose transport activity, which was estimated by the 2-deoxy-D-glucose (2DG) uptake method. NOC12 treatment significantly increased basal glucose uptake, with no insulin stimulation, in extensor digitrorum longus (EDL) muscle (P<0.01), while it caused no significant changes in insulin-stimulated glucose uptake in the skeletal muscles assayed. Injection of L-NAME at 300 mg/kg BW resulted in a significant decrease in the basal glucose uptake in gastrocnemius muscles (P<0.01). No significant changes in the insulin-stimulated glucose uptake by L-NAME were observed in any skeletal muscles studied. The results suggest that NO plays a lesser role in the modulation of glucose transport in chicken skeletal muscle compared to mammals and may be involved in non-insulin mediated glucose transport.     

Inhibition by forskolin of insulin-stimulated glucose transport in L6 muscle cells.

The cardioactive diterpene forskolin is a known activator of adenylate cyclase, but recently a specific interaction of this compound with the glucose transporter has been identified that results in the inhibition of glucose transport in several human and rat cell types. We have compared the sensitivity of basal and insulin-stimulated hexose transport to inhibition by forskolin in skeletal muscle cells of the L6 line. Forskolin completely inhibited both basal and insulin-stimulated hexose transport when present during the transport assay. The inhibition of basal transport was completely reversible upon removal of the diterpene. In contrast, insulin-stimulated hexose transport did not recover, and basal transport levels were attained instead. This effect of inhibiting (or reversing) the insulin-stimulated fraction of transport is a novel effect of the diterpene. Forskolin treatment also inhibited the stimulated fraction of transport when the stimulus was by 4 beta-phorbol 12,13-dibutyrate, reversing back to basal levels. Half-maximal inhibition of the above-basal insulin-stimulated transport was achieved with 35-50 microM-forskolin, and maximal inhibition with 100 microM. Forskolin did not inhibit 125I-insulin binding under conditions where it caused significant inhibition of insulin-stimulated hexose transport. Forskolin significantly elevated the cyclic AMP levels in the cells; however its inhibitory effect on the above basal, insulin-stimulated fraction of hexose transport was not mediated by cyclic AMP since: (i) 8-bromo cyclic AMP and cholera toxin did not mimic this effect of the diterpene, (ii) significant decreases in cyclic AMP levels caused by 2',3'-dideoxyadenosine in the presence of forskolin did not prevent inhibition of insulin-stimulated hexose transport, (iii) isobutylmethylxanthine did not potentiate forskolin effects on glucose transport but did potentiate the elevation in cyclic AMP, and (iv) 1,9-dideoxyforskolin, which does not activate adenylate cyclase, inhibited hexose transport analogously to forskolin. We conclude that forskolin can selectively inhibit the insulin- and phorbol ester-stimulated fraction of hexose transport under conditions where basal transport is unimpaired. The results are compatible with the suggestions that glucose transporters operating in the stimulated state (insulin or phorbol ester-stimulated) differ in their sensitivity to forskolin from transporters operating in the basal state, or, alternatively, that a forskolin-sensitive signal maintains the stimulated transport rate.     

Glucose transporter content and glucose uptake in skeletal muscle constructs engineered in vitro

Engineered muscle may eventually be used as a treatment option for patients suffering from loss of muscle function. The metabolic and contractile function of engineered muscle has not been well described; therefore, the purpose of this experiment was to study glucose transporter content and glucose uptake in engineered skeletal muscle constructs called myooids. Glucose uptake by way of 2-deoxyglucose and GLUT-1 and GLUT-4 transporter protein content was measured in basal and insulin-stimulated myooids that were engineered from soleus muscles of female Sprague-Dawley rats. There was a significant increase in the basal 2-deoxyglucose uptake of myooids compared with adult control (fivefold), contraction-stimulated (3.4-fold), and insulin-stimulated (threefold) soleus muscles (P = 0.0001, 0.0001, and 0.0001, respectively). In addition, there was a significant increase in the insulin-stimulated 2-deoxyglucose uptake of myooids compared with adult control soleus muscles in basal conditions (6.5-fold) and adult contraction-stimulated (4.5-fold) and insulin- stimulated (3.9-fold) soleus muscles (P = 0.0001, 0.0001, and 0.0001, respectively). There was a significant 30% increase in insulin-stimulated compared with basal 2-deoxyglucose uptake in the myooids. The myooid GLUT-1 protein content was 820% of the adult control soleus muscle, whereas the GLUT-4 protein content was 130% of the control soleus muscle. Myooid GLUT-1 protein content was 6.3-fold greater than GLUT-4 protein content, suggesting that the glucose transport of the engineered myooids is similar in several respects to that observed in both fetal and denervated skeletal muscle tissue.     

Transport of 1,5-anhydro-D-glucitol across plasma membranes in rat hepatoma cells

The transport of 1,5-anhydro-D-glucitol (AG) across plasma membranes was investigated in rat hepatoma cells, Reuber H-35. The AG uptake by the cells showed a concentration gradient dependency: the uptake was saturated within 40 s, which was less than one-third of the saturation time for 2-deoxy-D-glucose (DG) uptake. Furthermore, the Km value of the transport system for AG was higher than 100 mM. Though AG has a pyranoid structure resembling that of glucose, AG did not compete for cellular uptake with DG, D-glucose or 3-O-methyl-D-glucose, which are taken into cells through the glucose transporters. Conversely, the DG transport was not inhibited by AG at concentrations up to 50 mM. AG transport was hardly inhibited by 10 microM cytochalasin B, which strongly inhibits glucose transporters. In contrast, the AG transport was inhibited by 100 microM phloretin much more strongly than the DG transport when cells were preincubated with the inhibitor; the inhibition constant was 28.0 microM. The AG transport was not inhibited by 100 microM phloridzin, while the DG uptake was slightly inhibited by phloridzin. On the basis of these observations we propose that the AG uptake into rat hepatoma cells is mediated by a carrier distinct from glucose transporters.     

Insulin-stimulated glucose transport in muscle. Evidence for a protein-kinase-C-dependent component which is unaltered in insulin-resistant mice.

The aim of our work was to investigate a possible role of protein kinase C (PKC) in insulin-stimulated glucose uptake in mouse skeletal muscle, and to search for a defect in PKC activation in insulin resistance found in obesity. In isolated soleus muscle of lean mice, insulin (100 nM) and 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol 13-acetate (TPA) (1 microM) acutely stimulated glucose uptake 3- and 2-fold respectively. The effects of insulin and TPA were not additive. When PKC activity was down-regulated by long-term (24 h) TPA pretreatment, before measurement of glucose transport, the TPA effect was abolished, but in addition insulin-stimulated glucose transport returned to basal values. Furthermore, polymyxin B, which inhibits PKC in muscle extracts, prevented insulin-stimulated glucose uptake in muscle. In muscle of obese insulin-resistant mice, glucose uptake evoked by insulin was decreased, whereas the TPA effect, expressed as a fold increase, was unaltered. Thus both agents stimulated glucose transport to the same extent. Furthermore, no difference was observed when PKC activation by TPA was measured in muscle from lean and obese mice. These results suggest that: (1) PKC is involved in the insulin effect on glucose transport in muscle; (2) PKC activation explains only part of the insulin stimulation of glucose transport; (3) the defect in insulin response in obese mice does not appear to be due to an alteration in the PKC-dependent component of glucose transport. We propose that insulin stimulation of glucose uptake occurs by a sequential two-step mechanism, with first translocation of transporters to the plasma membrane, which is PKC dependent, and second, activation of the glucose transporters. In obesity only the activation step was decreased, whereas the translocation step was unaltered.     

Counter-regulation of insulin-stimulated glucose transport by catecholamines in the isolated rat adipose cell

The interaction between catecholamines and insulin in regulating glucose transport in isolated rat adipose cells has been evaluated. In the absence of insulin, 1 microM isoproterenol stimulates 3-O-methylglucose transport approximately 2-fold. However, isoproterenol in combination with adenosine deaminase inhibits glucose transport activity approximately 60%. N6-Phenylisopropyladenosine, a nonmetabolizable adenosine analogue, substantially reverses this inhibitory effect and actually stimulates glucose transport activity approximately 2-fold in the absence of isoproterenol. Dibutyryl cAMP inhibits glucose transport activity approximately 75% regardless of adenosine deaminase. While none of these agents significantly influences the basal concentration of plasma membrane glucose transporters, as assessed by specific D-glucose-inhibitable cytochalasin B binding, isoproterenol or dibutyryl cAMP in combination with adenosine deaminase reduces that in the low density microsomes 19 and 58%, respectively. In the presence of insulin, both isoproterenol and adenosine deaminase alone inhibit glucose transport activity approximately 25%. However, only the latter is accompanied by a corresponding decrease in the insulin-stimulated concentration of plasma membrane glucose transporters. Together, isoproterenol and adenosine deaminase inhibit insulin-stimulated glucose transport activity approximately 75%, even in the presence of 5 mM glucose to maintain cellular ATP levels. A similar inhibition is observed with dibutyryl cAMP. However, these agents decrease the insulin-stimulated concentration of plasma membrane glucose transporters only approximately 45%. Nevertheless, all of these inhibitory effects occur through decreases in the transport Vmax. In addition, N6-phenylisopropyladenosine partially reverses the inhibitory effects induced by the presence of adenosine deaminase. These results suggest that catecholamines counter-regulate basal and insulin-stimulated glucose transport in rat adipose cells through a cAMP-mediated mechanism, but only in part by modulating the translocation of glucose transporters.     

Insulin receptor substrate-2 is not necessary for insulin- and exercise-stimulated glucose transport in skeletal muscle.

Insulin receptor substrate-2-deficient (IRS2(-/-)) mice develop type 2 diabetes. The purpose of this study was to determine whether there is a defect in basal, insulin-, and exercise-stimulated glucose transport in the skeletal muscle of these animals. IRS2(-/-) and wild-type (WT) mice (male, 8-10 weeks) exercised on a treadmill for 1 h or remained sedentary. 2-Deoxyglucose (2DG) uptake was measured in isolated soleus muscles incubated in vitro in the presence or absence of insulin. Resting blood glucose concentration in IRS2(-/-) mice (10.3 mM) was higher than WT animals (4.1 mM), but there was a wide range among the IRS2(-/-) mice (3-25 mM). Therefore, IRS2(-/-) mice were divided into two subgroups based on blood glucose concentrations (IRS2(-/-)L < 7.2 mM, IRS2(-/-)H > 7.2 mM). Only IRS2(-/-)H had lower basal, exercise-, and submaximally insulin-stimulated 2DG uptake, while maximal insulin-stimulated 2DG uptake was similar among the three groups. The ED(50) for insulin to stimulate 2DG uptake above basal in IRS2(-/-)H was higher than WT and IRS2(-/-)L mice, suggesting insulin resistance in the skeletal muscle from the IRS2(-/-) mice with high blood glucose concentrations. Furthermore, resting blood glucose concentrations from all groups were negatively correlated to submaximally insulin-stimulated 2DG uptake (r(2) = 0.33, p < 0.01). Muscle GLUT4 content was significantly lower in IRS2(-/-)H mice compared with WT and IRS2(-/-)L mice. These results demonstrate that the IRS2 protein in muscle is not necessary for insulin- or exercise-stimulated glucose transport, suggesting that the onset of diabetes in the IRS2(-/-) mice is not due to a defect in skeletal muscle glucose transport; hyperglycemia may cause insulin resistance in the muscle of IRS2(-/-) mice.     

Insulin unmasks a COOH-terminal Glut4 epitope and increases glucose transport across T-tubules in skeletal muscle

An improved immunogold labeling procedure was used to examine the subcellular distribution of glucose transporters in Lowricryl HM20- embedded skeletal muscle from transgenic mice overexpressing either Glut1 or Glut4. In basal muscle, Glut4 was highly enriched in membranes of the transverse tubules and the terminal cisternae of the triadic junctions. Less than 10% of total muscle Glut4 was present in the vicinity of the sarcolemmal membrane. Insulin treatment increased the number of gold particles associated with the transverse tubules and the sarcolemma by three-fold. However, insulin also increased the total Glut4 immunogold reactivity in muscle ultrathin sections by up to 1.8- fold and dramatically increased the amount of Glut4 in muscle sections as observed by laser confocal immunofluorescence microscopy. The average diameter of transverse tubules observed in longitudinal sections increased by 50% after insulin treatment. Glut1 was highly enriched in the sarcolemma, both in the basal state and after insulin treatment. Disruption of transverse tubule morphology by in vitro glycerol shock completely abolished insulin-stimulated glucose transport in isolated rat epitrochlearis muscles. These data indicate that: (a) Glut1 and Glut4 are targeted to distinct plasma membrane domains in skeletal muscle; (b) Glut1 contributes to basal transport at the sarcolemma and the bulk of insulin-stimulated transport is mediated by Glut4 localized in the transverse tubules; (c) insulin increases the apparent surface area of transverse tubules in skeletal muscle; and (d) insulin causes the unmasking of a COOH-terminal antigenic epitope in skeletal muscle in much the same fashion as it does in rat adipocytes.     

Phorbol esters affect skeletal muscle glucose transport in a fiber type-specific manner

Recent evidence has shown that activation of lipid-sensitive protein kinase C (PKC) isoforms leads to skeletal muscle insulin resistance. However, earlier studies demonstrated that phorbol esters increase glucose transport in skeletal muscle. The purpose of the present study was to try to resolve this discrepancy. Treatment with the phorbol ester 12-deoxyphorbol-13-phenylacetate 20-acetate (dPPA) led to an approximately 3.5-fold increase in glucose transport in isolated fast-twitch epitrochlearis and flexor digitorum brevis muscles. Phorbol ester treatment was additive to a maximally effective concentration of insulin in fast-twitch skeletal muscles. Treatment with dPPA did not affect insulin signaling in the epitrochlearis. In contrast, phorbol esters had no effect on basal glucose transport and inhibited maximally insulin-stimulated glucose transport approximately 50% in isolated slow-twitch soleus muscle. Furthermore, dPPA treatment inhibited the insulin-stimulated tyrosine phosphorylation of insulin receptor substrate (IRS)-1 and the threonine and serine phosphorylation of PKB by approximately 50% in the soleus. dPPA treatment also caused serine phosphorylation of IRS-1 in the slow-twitch soleus muscle. In conclusion, our results show that phorbol esters stimulate glucose transport in fast-twitch skeletal muscles and inhibit insulin signaling in slow-twitch soleus muscle of rats. These findings suggest that mechanisms other than PKC activation mediate lipotoxicity-induced whole body insulin resistance.     

Denervation provokes greater reductions in insulin-stimulated glucose transport in muscle than severe diabetes

We have examined the independent and combined effects of insulin insufficiency (streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetes, 85 mg/kg i.p.) and reduced muscle activity (denervation) (7 days) on basal, insulin-stimulated and contraction-stimulated glucose transport in rat muscles (soleus, red and white gastrocnemius). There were four treatments: control, denervated, diabetic, and denervated + diabetic muscles. Contraction-stimulated glucose transport was lowered (~ 50%) (p < 0.05) to the same extent in all experimental groups. In contrast, there was a much smaller reduction insulin-stimulated glucose transport in muscles from diabetic animals (18-24% reduction, p < 0.05) than in denervated muscles (40-60% reduction, p < 0.05) and in denervated + diabetic muscles (40-60% reduction, p < 0.05). GLUT-4 mRNA reduction was greatest in denervated + diabetic muscles (~ -75%, p < 0.05). GLUT-4 protein was decreased (p < 0.05) to a similar extent in all three experimental conditions (~ -30-40%). In conclusion, (1) muscle inactivity (denervation) and STZ-induced diabetes had similar effects on reducing contraction-stimulated glucose transport, but (2) muscle inactivity (denervation), rather than severe diabetes, produced a 2-fold greater impairment in skeletal muscle insulin-stimulated glucose transport.     

Modulation of muscle insulin resistance by selective inhibition of GSK-3 in Zucker diabetic fatty rats

A role for elevated glycogen synthase kinase-3 (GSK-3) activity in the multifactorial etiology of insulin resistance is now emerging. However, the utility of specific GSK-3 inhibition in modulating insulin resistance of skeletal muscle glucose transport is not yet fully understood. Therefore, we assessed the effects of novel, selective organic inhibitors of GSK-3 (CT-98014 and CT-98023) on glucose transport in insulin-resistant muscles of Zucker diabetic fatty (ZDF) rats. Incubation of type IIb epitrochlearis and type I soleus muscles from ZDF rats with CT-98014 increased glycogen synthase activity (49 and 50%, respectively, P < 0.05) but did not alter basal glucose transport (2-deoxyglucose uptake). In contrast, CT-98014 significantly increased the stimulatory effects of both submaximal and maximal insulin concentrations in epitrochlearis (37 and 24%) and soleus (43 and 26%), and these effects were associated with increased cell-surface GLUT4 protein. Lithium enhanced glycogen synthase activity and both basal and insulin-stimulated glucose transport in muscles from ZDF rats. Acute oral administration (2 x 30 mg/kg) of CT-98023 to ZDF rats caused elevations in GSK-3 inhibitor concentrations in plasma and muscle. The glucose and insulin responses during a subsequent oral glucose tolerance test were reduced by 26 and 34%, respectively, in the GSK-3 inhibitor-treated animals. Thirty minutes after the final GSK-3 inhibitor treatment, insulin-stimulated glucose transport was significantly enhanced in epitrochlearis (57%) and soleus (43%). Two hours after the final treatment, insulin-mediated glucose transport was still significantly elevated (26%) only in the soleus. These results indicate that specific inhibition of GSK-3 enhances insulin action on glucose transport in skeletal muscle of the insulin-resistant ZDF rat. This unique approach may hold promise as a pharmacological treatment against insulin resistance of skeletal muscle glucose disposal.     

Mechanisms underlying impaired GLUT-4 translocation in glycogen-supercompensated muscles of exercised rats

Exercise training induces an increase in GLUT-4 in muscle. We previously found that feeding rats a high-carbohydrate diet after exercise, with muscle glycogen supercompensation, results in a decrease in insulin responsiveness so severe that it masks the effect of a training-induced twofold increase in GLUT-4 on insulin-stimulated muscle glucose transport. One purpose of this study was to determine whether insulin signaling is impaired. Maximally insulin-stimulated phosphatidylinositol (PI) 3-kinase activity was not significantly reduced, whereas protein kinase B (PKB) phosphorylation was approximately 50% lower (P < 0.01) in muscles of chow-fed, than in those of fasted, exercise-trained rats. Our second purpose was to determine whether contraction-stimulated glucose transport is also impaired. The stimulation of glucose transport and the increase in cell surface GLUT-4 induced by contractions were both decreased by approximately 65% in glycogen-supercompensated muscles of trained rats. The contraction-stimulated increase in AMP kinase activity, which has been implicated in the activation of glucose transport by contractions, was approximately 80% lower in the muscles of the fed compared with the fasted rats 18 h after exercise. These results show that both the insulin- and contraction-stimulated pathways for muscle glucose transport activation are impaired in glycogen-supercompensated muscles and provide insight regarding possible mechanisms.     

An inhibitor of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase prevents insulin-stimulated glucose transport but not glucose transporter translocation in 3T3-L1 adipocytes and L6 myotubes

The precise mechanisms underlying insulin-stimulated glucose transport still require investigation. Here we assessed the effect of SB203580, an inhibitor of the p38 MAP kinase family, on insulin-stimulated glucose transport in 3T3-L1 adipocytes and L6 myotubes. We found that SB203580, but not its inactive analogue (SB202474), prevented insulin-stimulated glucose transport in both cell types with an IC50 similar to that for inhibition of p38 MAP kinase (0.6 microM). Basal glucose uptake was not affected. Moreover, SB203580 added only during the transport assay did not inhibit basal or insulin-stimulated transport. SB203580 did not inhibit insulin-stimulated translocation of the glucose transporters GLUT1 or GLUT4 in 3T3-L1 adipocytes as assessed by immunoblotting of subcellular fractions or by immunofluorescence of membrane lawns. L6 muscle cells expressing GLUT4 tagged on an extracellular domain with a Myc epitope (GLUT4myc) were used to assess the functional insertion of GLUT4 into the plasma membrane. SB203580 did not affect the insulin-induced gain in GLUT4myc exposure at the cell surface but largely reduced the stimulation of glucose uptake. SB203580 had no effect on insulin-dependent insulin receptor substrate-1 phosphorylation, association of the p85 subunit of phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase with insulin receptor substrate-1, nor on phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase, Akt1, Akt2, or Akt3 activities in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. In conclusion, in the presence of SB203580, insulin caused normal translocation and cell surface membrane insertion of glucose transporters without stimulating glucose transport. We propose that insulin stimulates two independent signals contributing to stimulation of glucose transport: phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase leads to glucose transporter translocation and a pathway involving p38 MAP kinase leads to activation of the recruited glucose transporter at the membrane.     

In vivo adenoviral delivery of recombinant human protein kinase C-zeta stimulates glucose transport activity in rat skeletal muscle.

An in vivo adenoviral gene delivery system was utilized to assess the effect of overexpressing protein kinase C (PKC)-zeta on rat skeletal muscle glucose transport activity. Female lean Zucker rats were injected with adenoviral/human PKC-zeta (hPKC-zeta) and adenoviral/LacZ in opposing tibialis anterior muscles. One week subsequent to adenoviral/gene delivery rats were subjected to hind limb perfusion. The hPKC-zeta protein was expressed at the same level (fast-twitch white) or at approximately 80% of the level (fast-twitch red) of endogenous PKC-zeta, thus approximately doubling the amount of PKC-zeta in tibialis anterior. Basal glucose transport activity was elevated approximately 3.4- and 2-fold, respectively, in fast-twitch white and red hPKC-zeta muscle relative to control. Submaximal insulin-stimulated glucose transport activity, corrected for basal transport, was approximately 90 and 40% over control values, respectively, in fast-twitch white and red hPKC-zeta muscle. The enhancement of glucose transport activity in muscle expressing hPKC-zeta occurred in the absence of any change in GLUT1 or GLUT4 protein levels, suggesting a redistribution of existing transporters to the cell surface. These results demonstrate that an adenoviral vector can be used to deliver expressible hPKC-zeta to adult rat skeletal muscle in vivo and also affirm a role for PKC-zeta in the regulation of glucose transport activity.     

Regulation of hexose transport in L8 myocytes by glucose: possible sites of interaction

Previous work demonstrated that glucose controls its own transport rate in rat skeletal muscle: exposure to high glucose levels down-regulates muscle hexose transport, while glucose withdrawal results in elevated transport rates (J. Biol. Chem. 261:16827-16833, 1986). The present study investigates the mechanism of this autoregulatory system. Preincubation of L8 myocytes at 16 mM glucose reduced subsequent 2-deoxy-D-glucose (dGlc) uptake by 40% within 3 h. Cycloheximide (1 microM) mimicked the action of glucose; the effects of glucose and cycloheximide were not additive. At 50 microM, cycloheximide prevented the modulations of glucose transport induced by exposure of muscle cells to high or low glucose concentrations. Inhibition of glycosylation with tunicamycin A1 reduced the basal dGlc uptake, but did not prevent its up-regulation following glucose withdrawal. Inhibition of RNA synthesis by actinomycin D prevented the down-regulatory effect of glucose. These results indicate that continuous protein synthesis and protein glycosylation are required for the maintenance of the steady-state dGlc uptake. We suggest that glucose exerts its autoregulatory effect on hexose transport by modifying the incorporation of active glucose transporters into the plasma membrane rather than changing their rate of degradation. It is hypothesized that this effect is mediated by a non-glycosylated protein involved in the translocation or activation of glucose transporters.     

Inhibition of insulin-stimulated glucose transport in rat adipocytes by nucleoside transport inhibitors

In isolated rat adipocytes, basal as well as insulin-stimulated 3-O-methylglucose transport was inhibited nearly completely (maximal inhibition: 95%) by the nucleoside transport inhibitors dipyridamole (IC50 = 5 microM), nitrobenzylthioguanosine (20 microM), nitrobenzylthioinosine (35 microM) and papaverine (130 microM). Transport kinetics in the presence of 10 microM dipyridamole revealed a significant increase in the transport Km value of 3-O-methylglucose (3.45 +/- 0.6 vs 2.36 +/- 0.29 mM in the controls) as well as a decrease in the Vmax value (4.84 +/- 0.95 vs 9.03 +/- 1.19 pmol/s per microliter lipid in the controls). Half-maximally inhibiting concentrations of dipyridamole were one order of magnitude higher than those inhibiting nucleoside (thymidine) uptake (0.48 microM). The inhibitory effect of dipyridamole (5 microM) reached its maximum within 30 s. The agent failed to affect insulin's half-maximally stimulating concentration (0.075 nM) indicating that it did not interfere with the mechanism by which insulin stimulates glucose transport. Further, dipyridamole fully suppressed the glucose-inhibitable cytochalasin B binding (IC50 = 1.65 +/- 0.05 microM). The data indicate that nucleoside transport inhibitors reduce glucose transport by a direct interaction with the transporter or a closely related protein. It is suggested that glucose and nucleoside transporters share structural, and possibly functional, features.     

Palmitate stimulates glucose transport in rat adipocytes by a mechanism involving translocation of the insulin sensitive glucose transporter (GLUT4).

In rat adipocytes, palmitate: a) increases basal 2-deoxyglucose transport 129 +/- 27% (p less than 0.02), b) decreases the insulin sensitive glucose transporter (GLUT4) in low density microsomes and increases GLUT4 in plasma membranes and c) increases the activity of the insulin receptor tyrosine kinase. Palmitate-stimulated glucose transport is not additive with the effect of insulin and is not inhibited by the protein kinase C inhibitors staurosporine and sphingosine. In rat muscle, palmitate: a) does not affect basal glucose transport in either the soleus or epitrochlearis and b) inhibits insulin-stimulated glucose transport by 28% (p less than 0.005) in soleus but not in epitrochlearis muscle. These studies demonstrate a potentially important differential role for fatty acids in the regulation of glucose transport in different insulin target tissues.     

Stimulation-enhanced 3-O-methylglucose efflux from the frog sartorius: kinetics and properties of the system.

The characteristics of the process by which contraction enhances glucose transport in the frog sartorius were studied. Electrical stimulation increased the permeability of muscles to 3-O-methylglucose (3-O-MeGlc), a nonmetabolizable glucose analogue, increasing efflux as well as uptake. Enhanced efflux was due to an increase in Vmax of the efflux process. A lactacidosis had no effect on basal 3-O-MeGlc efflux, and replacement of media Na+ with Li+ did not affect stimulation-induced uptake. Also, basal and stimulated uptake was not affected by 1 microM 12-O-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA), a protein kinase C activator. Lastly, N-carbobenzoxy-glycyl-L-phenylalaninamide, which inhibits insulin-enhanced, but not basal, glucose uptake in adipocytes, inhibited both basal and stimulated 3-O-MeGlc fluxes in the frog sartorius. From these findings, we conclude: (1) contraction and exercise enhance glucose transport in muscle by increasing the number of transporters in the plasma membrane, or their turnover, by an unknown process; and (2) basal glucose transport of muscle, unlike that of adipocytes, can not be distinguished from stimulated transport on the basis of its insensitivity to N-carbobenzoxyglycyl-L-phenylalaninamide.