Reproduction of the long-tongued nectar bat Macroglossus minimus (Pteropodidae) in Brunei, Borneo

The long‐tongued nectar bat Macroglossus minimus lagochilus (Megachiroptera, Pteropodidae) is a small fruit bat inhabiting South‐east Asia. Its reproduction was studied in Brunei, Borneo, where individuals were usually captured in rainforest (Ulu Temburong). Adult females (n = 23) had body masses of 13.0–19.0 g, with forelimbs 3.83–4.33 cm in length. All adult females were pregnant, with pregnancies observed during every month except May, September and November when no adult females were captured. Female M. minimus in Brunei have a reproductive cycle that is consistent with a pattern of seasonal bimodal polyoestry. Most births appear to occur from November to May, during which time females experience two births: the first centred around November and December, and the second centred around April and May. These two birth seasons appear correlated to the two seasons of greater rainfall in Brunei: October to December, and April to July. Oestrous and mating apparently occur soon after each birth; however, there appears to be a 2‐ to 3‐month period of delayed embryonic development following the births centred around April and May. The data are consistent with embryonic development commencing around July and August (after a delay) for the births centred around November and December, and around December and January for the births centred around April and May. The data suggest that all adult females participate in each breeding season. Adult males (n = 20) had body masses of 12.5–18.0 g, with forelimbs 3.91–4.26 cm in length.     

Studies on Schismatoglottideae (Araceae) of Borneo LV: Schismatoglottis saafiei and Schismatoglottis zainuddinii spp. nov. from Tawau Hills,Sabah

Schismatoglottis saafiei Kartini, P. C. Boyce & S. Y. Wong and Schismatoglottis zainuddinii Kartini, P. C. Boyce & S. Y. Wong are described and illustrated as new species from Tawau Hills N.P., Sabah, Malaysian Borneo. Schismatoglottis zainuddinii is the first record of the Schismatoglottis Asperata clade for Sabah. Schismatoglottis saafiei belongs to a complex of species centred on S. trifasciata Hallier.f.     

Molecular Parameterisation and the Theoretical Calculation of Electrode Potentials

The difference in reduction potentials between ortho and para-benzoquinones has been calculated. The employs gas phase ab initio and semi-empirical computations in combination with free energy perturbation theory applied to gas and solution phase Monte Carlo simulations. The effects on calculated results of altering solute electrostatic parameterisation in solution phase simulations is examined. Atom centred charges derived from the molecular electrostatic potentials, MEPs, from optimised ab initio wavefunctions and charges generated by consideration of hydrogen bonded complexes are considered. Parameterisation of hydroxyl torsions in hydroquinone molecules is treated in a physically realistic manner. The coupled torsional system of the ortho-hydrobenzoquinone molecule is described by a potential energy surface calculated using gas phase AM1 semi-empirical computations rather than the simple torsional energy functions frequently employed in such calculations. Calculated differences in electrode potentials show that the electrostatic interactions of quinone and hydroquinone molecules in aqueous solution are not well described by atom centred charges derived from ab initio calculated MEPs. Moreover, results in good agreement with the experimental reduction potential difference can be obtained by employing high level ab initio calculations and solution phase electrostatic parameters developed by consideration of hydrogen bonded complexes.     

'Andean-centred' genera in the short-branch clade of Annonaceae: testing biogeographical hypotheses using phylogeny reconstruction and molecular dating

Aim We test biogeographical hypotheses regarding the origin of Andean‐centred plant groups by reconstructing phylogeny in the short‐branch clade (SBC) of Annonaceae, and estimating the timing of diversifications in four apparently Andean‐centred genera: Cremastosperma R.E.Fr., Klarobelia Chatrou, Malmea R.E.Fr. and Mosannona Chatrou. The SBC includes species distributed in both the Old and New World tropics. A number of the Neotropical genera display ‘Andean‐centred’ distribution patterns, with high species richness on both sides of the Andes mountain range. In particular, we test whether these groups could have originated on the South American continent during the time frame of the Andean orogeny [from c. 23 Ma (Miocene) to the present]. Methods Chloroplast DNA sequences were used to reconstruct phylogeny in related Annonaceae taxa plus outgroups, under maximum parsimony and Bayesian inference. The markers rbcL, trnL‐trnF and psbA‐trnH were sampled for 96 accessions to test the monophyly of each of the genera, and thus whether they might be para‐ or polyphyletic with respect to related groups distributed across Amazonia. To determine the sister groups of the four genera, the additional markers matK, ndhF, trnT‐trnL, trnS‐trnG and atpB‐rbcL were sampled for 23 of the 96 accessions. Molecular dating techniques (nonparametric rate‐smoothing; penalized likelihood; Bayesian inference) were then applied to estimate the age of the crown group of each genus and the age of their sister groups. Results Monophyly was confirmed in Cremastosperma, Malmea and Mosannona. The monotypic genus Pseudephedranthus Aristeg. was found to be nested within Klarobelia, the species of which otherwise formed a monophyletic group, and a South American‐centred (SAC) clade was identified. The SAC clade comprises all the SBC genera distributed in South America and generally to a limited extent into Central America, but not those endemic to Africa, Asia and Central America. Age estimations for clades within the SBC were no older than around 60 Myr; those for the crown groups of Cremastosperma, Klarobelia, Malmea and Mosannona fell largely within the last 10–20 Myr. Main conclusions The distribution patterns of Cremastosperma, Klarobelia, Malmea and Mosannona are not the arbitrary result of the definition of para‐ or polyphyletic groups. We infer the presence of a common ancestor of the four genera in South America, but not by vicariance of an ancestral population on Gondwana. The age estimations, instead, may suggest that the SAC clade originated in South America by dispersal across the Boreotropics. Although the strength of this test was limited by imprecision in the molecular dating results, the ages of crown groups of the four genera suggest that diversifications occurred within the time frame of the orogeny of the Northern Andes.     

Molecular analysis of a major locus for resistance to downy mildew in sunflower with specific PCR-based markers

Resistance of sunflower to the obligate parasite Plasmopara halstedii is conferred by specific dominant genes, denoted Pl. The Pl6 locus confers resistance to all races of P. halstedii except one, and must contain at least 11 tightly linked genes each giving resistance to different downy mildew races. Specific primers were designed and used to amplify 13 markers covering a genetic distance of about 3 cM centred on the Pl6 locus. Cloning and sequence analysis of these 13 markers indicate that Pl6 contains conserved genes belonging to the TIR-NBS-LRR class of plant resistance genes. Received: 9 April 2001 / Accepted: 10 August 2001     

Revision of the genus Pseudabris Fairmaire (Coleoptera,Meloidae), an endemic to the Tibetan Plateau,with biogeographical comments

The mylabrine genus Pseudabris is endemic to the Tibetan Plateau and includes seven species with overlapping or disjunct ranges. The genus is revised: three new species, P. brevipilosa sp.n., P. latimaculata sp.n., P. regularis sp.n., are described and illustrated, and a key to the species is provided. Molecular evidence supports the placement of Pseudabris within the tribe Mylabrini. Results of a morphology‐based cladistic analysis support the existence of two lineages, one centred mainly on the south central plateau, and the second in the eastern area. Faunistics and bionomics of the genus are summarized, focusing on phenology, elevation, habitat preference and host plants. The endemism of the Tibetan Plateau is discussed, with a special focus on the genus Pseudabris.     

Cryptic genetic and wing pattern diversity in a mimetic Heliconius butterfly

Despite rampant colour pattern diversity in South America, Heliconius erato exhibits a ‘postman’ wing pattern throughout most of Central America. We examined genetic variation across the range of H. erato, including dense sampling in Central America, and discovered a deep genetic break, centred on the mountain range that runs through Costa Rica. This break is characterized by a novel mitochondrial lineage, which is nearly fixed in northern Central America, that branches basal to all previously described mitochondrial diversity in the species. Strong genetic differentiation also appears in Z‐linked and autosomal markers, and it is further associated with a distinct, but subtle, shift in wing pattern phenotype. Comparison of clines in wing phenotype, mtDNA and nuclear markers indicate they are all centred on the mountains dividing Costa Rica, but that cline width differs among data sets. Phylogeographical analyses, accounting for this new diversity, rewrite our understanding of mimicry evolution in this system. For instance, these results suggest that H. erato originated west of the Andes, perhaps in Central America, and as many as 1 million years before its co‐mimic, H. melpomene. Overall our data indicate that neutral genetic markers and colour pattern loci are congruent and converge on the same hypothesis—H. erato originated in northwest South America or Central America with a ‘postman’ phenotype and then radiated into the wealth of colour patterns present today.     

Phylogeny and systematics of Melanesia’s most diverse gecko lineage (Cyrtodactylus,Gekkonidae, Squamata)

Oliver, P.M., Richards, S.J. & Sistrom, M. (2012). Phylogeny and systematics of Melanesia’s most diverse gecko lineage (Cyrtodactylus, Gekkonidae, Squamata). —Zoologica Scripta, 41, 437–454. The systematics and biogeographical history of the diverse fauna of New Guinea and surrounding islands (Melanesia) remain poorly known. We present a phylogeny for 16 of the 21 recognised Melanesian bent‐toed geckos in the genus Cyrtodactylus based on mitochondrial sequence data. These analyses reveal two divergent lineages of Cyrtodactylus within Melanesia. One includes a single recognised species with clear affinities to sampled taxa from Asia. The other comprises a relatively diverse radiation (likely 30+ species), not closely related to sampled extralimital taxa and centred on the Melanesian region (including Australia). Many taxa within this second lineage are endemic to islands surrounding New Guinea, and dispersal and speciation on peripheral islands appears to have played an important role in the accumulation of species diversity within this clade. In contrast, little diversity is centred upon montane areas, although we do identify at least one lineage closely associated with hill and lower montane forest that probably dates to at least the late Miocene. Our phylogenetic analyses also reveal numerous divergent lineages that require taxonomic attention, including at least two widespread taxa that are likely to be composite, additional specimens of Cyrtodactylus capreoloides (until recently known only from the holotype) and several divergent and completely novel lineages, two of which we introduce herein: Cyrtodactylus arcanus sp. n. and Cyrtodactylus medioclivus sp. n.     

Reverse genetics in eukaryotes

Reverse genetics consists in the modification of the activity of a target gene to analyse the phenotypic consequences. Four main approaches are used towards this goal and will be explained in this review. Two of them are centred on genome alterations. Mutations produced by random chemical or insertional mutagenesis can be screened to recover only mutants in a specific gene of interest. Alternatively, these alterations may be specifically targeted on a gene of interest by HR (homologous recombination). The other two approaches are centred on mRNA. RNA interference is a powerful method to reduce the level of gene products, while MO (morpholino) antisense oligonucleotides alter mRNA metabolism or translation. Some model species, such as Drosophila, are amenable to most of these approaches, whereas other model species are restricted to one of them. For example, in mice and yeasts, gene targeting by HR is prevalent, whereas in Xenopus and zebrafish MO oligonucleotides are mainly used. Genome‐wide collections of mutants or inactivated models obtained in several species by these approaches have been made and will help decipher gene functions in the post‐genomic era.     

The geographic distribution of reef and oceanic manta rays (Mobula alfredi and Mobula birostris) in Australian coastal waters

The known distribution of manta rays in Australian waters is patchy, with records primarily centred around tourism hotspots. We collated 11,614 records of Mobula alfredi from photo-ID databases (n = 10,715), aerial surveys (n = 378) and online reports (n = 521). The study confirms an uninterrupted coastal distribution from north of 26°S and 31°S on the west and east coasts, respectively. More southerly M. alfredi records relate to warm-water events with a southernmost extent at 34°S. Coastal sightings of Mobula birostris were rare (n = 32), likely reflecting a preference for offshore waters, but encompass a wider latitudinal extent than M. alfredi of 10–40°S.     

Dissimilarities in auditory tuning in midwife toads of the genus Alytes (Amphibia: Anura)

The auditory sensitivity in three species of the anuran genus Alytes (Alytidae) was examined to determine patterns of intra‐ and interspecific variation, relating these measurements to behavioural preferences measured in previous studies and to the adaptive and evolutionary significance of this sensory function. The audiograms obtained with multi‐unit recordings in the torus semicircularis of 13 Alytes cisternasii, 10 Alytes obstetricans, and eight Alytes dickhilleni show two regions of enhanced sensitivity, between approximately 100–500 and 1200–2400 Hz, with minimum thresholds at approximately 40 and 45 dB SPL, respectively. The mean and range of the high‐frequency region differed among species, although the sensitivity, measured as minimum thresholds, was similar. The region of high‐frequency sensitivity was centred at approximately the frequency of the advertisement call in A. cisternasii but, in A. obstetricans and A. dickhilleni, was centred at frequencies higher than the conspecific calls. These results contrast with preferences for lower frequencies exhibited by Alytes in female phonotactic and in male evoked vocal responses. Such loose relationships between signals and receivers suggest that the divergence of the sound communication system in Alytes has implied environmental and phylogenetic factors in addition to sexual selection processes.     

The origins and character of 'aboriginal subsistence' whaling: a global review

The International Whaling Commission (IWC) recognizes aboriginal subsistence whaling to be distinct from commercial whaling, and these two broad categories of whaling are subject to different management approaches. This paper describes recent, ongoing and likely future whale hunts that qualify, or may qualify, for aboriginal subsistence status within the IWC’s management framework. To ensure conservation of the whale populations, a forthright exposition of the origins, development and character of these hunts is needed in addition to stock assessment, a risk‐averse catch limit algorithm and appropriate mechanisms within the whaling communities to ensure compliance. The hunts for Bowhead Whales (Balaena mysticetus) and Gray Whales (Eschrichtius robustus) in the Arctic and North Pacific, respectively, and Sperm Whales (Physeter macrocephalus) in Indonesia have long histories and local origins. Those for Humpback Whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) in the Lesser Antilles and at Tonga in the South Pacific were introduced by foreign commercial whalers. Whale hunting in the Philippines appears to have originated both locally and as a result of foreign influence. The relatively recent initiation of whaling for Fin Whales (Balaenoptera physalus) and Minke Whales (Balaenoptera acutorostrata) in Greenland required introduced technology but can be viewed as a modern adaptation of an ancient tradition. Consensus in deciding how to classify and manage non‐industrial whaling has been, and will remain, elusive. Even with common definitions of key terms such as ‘subsistence’, ‘commercial’ and ‘aboriginal’, interpretations will depend on whether one’s priorities are whale‐centred or human‐centred.     

Phenotypic plasticity and nutrition in a phytophagous insect: consequences of colonizing a new host

The European rose-hip fruit fly Rhagoletis alternata (Diptera, Tephritidae) infests hips of Rosa species. This fly includes R. rugosa, an Asian species now cultivated all over Europe, in its host range. Differences in size and biomass of hips between the ancestral host R. canina and the new host translate into better growth, shorter larval development of larvae within hips of R. rugosa and larger body size and fertility of flies which developing in the new host. In turn this causes different interactions with other organisms of the food-web centred on the host plant. The importance of nutrition and phenotypic plasticity is twofold: they generate a considerable part of life-history diversity within a species and reinforce differences in the ecological context of the ancestral and new host.     

Solution structure of dynorphin A (1–17): a NMR study in a cryoprotective solvent mixture at 278 K1

Dynorphin A, the endogenous agonist for the κ opioid receptor, has been studied by NMR spectroscopy in methanol, acetonitrile, DMSO and in mixtures of hexafluoroacetone/water and DMSO/water. NMR data in the DMSO/water cryomixture at 278 K are consistent with a conformer in which the N‐terminal part, like the corresponding message domain of enkephalins, is poorly ordered, whereas the C‐terminal part is folded in a loop centred around Pro¹⁰. The folded structure of the C‐terminal part (address moiety) may shed light on the role of the essential residues Arg⁷, Lys¹¹ and Lys¹³. Copyright © 1999 European Peptide Society and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The rust mycobiota of southern Africa: Species richness, composition, and affinities

The rust mycobiota (Uredinales, Basidiomycota) of southern Africa (Botswana, Namibia, and South Africa) is analysed with regard to species richness, generic composition, and similarities to the rust mycobiotas of the remaining African continent and other regions of the world. Southern Africa is home to about 546 rust species: ca 522 species have been reported from South Africa, 73 from Namibia, and less than ten from Botswana. Thirty-two species were considered to be exotics. Two hundred and twenty-five of the species are restricted to southern Africa, suggesting an endemism rate of ca 44 %. At present, the rust fungus:host ratio is 1:38.5, which is much lower than expected from other regions of the world. This low ratio may partly be due to under-exploration of the area, but the results presented here indicate that a natural paucity of rust fungi on certain, especially species-rich plant taxa centred in southern Africa and possibly environmental factors are more important reasons. The predominant genera are Puccinia and Uromyces accounting for ca 59 % of the rust species. The genera Hemileia, Phakopsora and especially Ravenelia, centred in tropical regions, are well represented and sum up to 8 % of the species. Members of Melampsoraceae and Phragmidiaceae, common in temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere, are scarce. Most of the other 28 recorded teleomorph genera are only represented by three or less species. In an African context, most species are shared with central and east Africa (almost 16 %). Only a few species are disjunct between southern and West Africa or Madagascar. Ca 10 % of the species are shared only with other parts of the paleotropics, especially the Indian subcontinent. Disjunctions of native species with the New World, Australia/New Zealand, or Europe are rare.     

Ultrastructure of the Spermatozoon of Avitellina centripunctata(Cestoda,Cyclophyllidea), a Parasite of the Small Intestine of Cattle in Senegal

The Avitellina centripunctataspermatozoon is filiform, tapered at both ends and lacks mitochondria. The anterior extremity exhibits an apical cone and a crested–like body 150–200 nm thick. The axoneme is surrounded by a fine layer of lucent cytoplasm and a sheath of electron–dense material. The cytoplasm is slightly electron–dense at the anterior tip of the apical cone and in region IV of the spermatozoon. Over the rest of the gamete it is subdivided into numerous electron–lucent compartments by irregularly spaced walls. The nucleus is electron–dense. It interposes itself between the cortical microtubules which are all electron–dense centred and spiralized along their whole length. An apical zone containing spiralized microtubules, cortical microtubules which are all electron–dense centred and stop before reaching the posterior extremity of the nucleus, as well as the subdivision into cavities by intracytoplasmic proteinaceous material, have never been described before in a cestod. Moreover, the crested–like body of Avitellina centripunctatais the thickest of those which have been described to date in the cestods.     

The extraordinary journey of Peperomia subgenus Tildenia (Piperaceae): insights into diversification and colonization patterns from its cradle in Peru to the Trans‐Mexican Volcanic Belt

Aim Peperomia subgenus Tildenia consists of c. 60 species growing in seasonal habitats of Neotropical mountain areas from Mexico to Argentina. The subgenus can be split geographically, with almost equal diversity in the Northern Hemisphere (centred in Mexico and Guatemala) and in the Southern Hemisphere (centred in Peru and Bolivia). Only a few species are known from a limited number of localities between these two hotspots. As such, Tildenia is an ideal candidate with which to test time, direction and mode of migration of high mountain taxa against the background of the ‘Great American Biotic Interchange’. Location The Andes with focus on the Central Andes, and the Mexican mountain chains, especially the Trans‐Mexican Volcanic Belt. Methods To elucidate the spatio‐temporal origin, subsequent colonization and radiation of Tildenia, we combine Bayesian phylogenetics based on the chloroplast trnK–matK–psbA region, georeferenced distribution data, and fossil calibrated molecular dating approaches using both penalized likelihood and relaxed phylogenetics. Reconstruction of the ancestral distribution area was performed using dispersal–vicariance analysis and dispersal–extinction–cladogenesis. Results Peperomia subgenus Tildenia is subdivided into six Andean clades and one Mexican and Central American clade originating from a north/central Peruvian ancestor. Molecular dating approaches converge on a stem age of c. 38 Ma for Tildenia and a mostly Miocene diversification and colonization. Main conclusions We detect a strong correlation between diversification of Tildenia and orogenetic events in the respective distribution centres. In the Andes, distribution was influenced by the Altiplano–Eastern Cordillera System as well as the Amotape‐Huancabamba Zone, where the latter serves as both migration barrier and migration bridge for different clades. In contrast to most studies of high‐elevation taxa, we provide support for a south–north colonization towards Central America and Mexico, and provide additional, independent evidence for the latest view on the timing of the Great American Biotic Interchange. In Mexico, the Trans‐Mexican Volcanic Belt has played a major role in more recent radiations together with climatic oscillation and the formation of refugia.