Inhibition of Vibrio harveyi bioluminescence by cerulenin: in vivo evidence for covalent modification of the reductase enzyme involved in aldehyde synthesis.

Bacterial bioluminescence is very sensitive to cerulenin, a fungal antibiotic which is known to inhibit fatty acid synthesis. When Vibrio harveyi cells pretreated with cerulenin were incubated with [3H]myristic acid in vivo, acylation of the 57-kilodalton reductase subunit of the luminescence-specific fatty acid reductase complex was specifically inhibited. In contrast, in vitro acylation of both the synthetase and transferase subunits, as well as the activities of luciferase, transferase, and aldehyde dehydrogenase, were not adversely affected by cerulenin. Light emission of wild-type V. harveyi was 20-fold less sensitive to cerulenin at low concentrations (10 micrograms/ml) than that of the dark mutant strain M17, which requires exogenous myristic acid for luminescence because of a defective transferase subunit. The sensitivity of myristic acid-stimulated luminescence in the mutant strain M17 exceeded that of phospholipid synthesis from [14C]acetate, whereas uptake and incorporation of exogenous [14C]myristic acid into phospholipids was increased by cerulenin. The reductase subunit could be labeled by incubating M17 cells with [3H]tetrahydrocerulenin; this labeling was prevented by preincubation with either unlabeled cerulenin or myristic acid. Labeling of the reductase subunit with [3H]tetrahydrocerulenin was also noted in an aldehyde-stimulated mutant (A16) but not in wild-type cells or in another aldehyde-stimulated mutant (M42) in which [3H]myristoyl turnover at the reductase subunit was found to be defective. These results indicate that (i) cerulenin specifically and covalently inhibits the reductase component of aldehyde synthesis, (ii) this enzyme is partially protected from cerulenin inhibition in the wild-type strain in vivo, and (iii) two dark mutants which exhibit similar luminescence phenotypes (mutants A16 and M42) are blocked at different stages of fatty acid reduction.     

Control of aldehyde synthesis in the luminous bacterium Beneckea harveyi.

Some of the Beneckea harveyi dim aldehyde mutants, all of which emit light upon addition of exogenous long-chain aldehyde, also emit light when myristic acid is added. Analysis of these myristic acid-responsive mutants indicates that they are blocked before fatty acid formation, whereas another class of mutants, which respond only to aldehyde, appear to be defective in the enzyme(s) involved in the conversion of acid to aldehyde. Evidence is presented that this activity, designated myristic acid reductase, is coinduced with luciferase and is involved in the recycling of acid produced in the luciferase reaction, with specificity for the C14 compounds.     

Elongation of exogenous fatty acids by the bioluminescent bacterium Vibrio harveyi.

Bioluminescent bacteria require myristic acid (C14:0) to produce the myristaldehyde substrate of the light-emitting luciferase reaction. Since both endogenous and exogenous C14:0 can be used for this purpose, the metabolism of exogenous fatty acids by luminescent bacteria has been investigated. Both Vibrio harveyi and Vibrio fischeri incorporated label from [1-14C]myristic acid (C14:0) into phospholipid acyl chains as well as into CO2. In contrast, Photobacterium phosphoreum did not exhibit phospholipid acylation or beta-oxidation using exogenous fatty acids. Unlike Escherichia coli, the two Vibrio species can directly elongate fatty acids such as octanoic (C8:0), lauric (C12:0), and myristic acid, as demonstrated by radio-gas liquid chromatography. The induction of bioluminescence in late exponential growth had little effect on the ability of V. harveyi to elongate fatty acids, but it did increase the amount of C14:0 relative to C16:0 labeled from [14C]C8:0. This was not observed in a dark mutant of V. harveyi that is incapable of supplying endogenous C14:0 for luminescence. Cerulenin preferentially decreased the labeling of C16:0 and of unsaturated fatty acids from all 14C-labeled fatty acid precursors as well as from [14C]acetate, suggesting that common mechanisms may be involved in elongation of fatty acids from endogenous and exogenous sources. Fatty acylation of the luminescence-related synthetase and reductase enzymes responsible for aldehyde synthesis exhibited a chain-length preference for C14:0, which also was indicated by reverse-phase thin-layer chromatography of the acyl groups attached to these enzymes. The ability of V. harveyi to activate and elongate exogenous fatty acids may be related to an adaptive requirement to metabolize intracellular C14:0 generated by the luciferase reaction during luminescence development.     

Exogenous myristic acid can be partially degraded prior to activation to form acyl-acyl carrier protein intermediates and lipid A in Vibrio harveyi.

To study the involvement of acyl carrier protein (ACP) in the metabolism of exogenous fatty acids in Vibrio harveyi, cultures were incubated in minimal medium with [9,10-3H]myristic acid, and labeled proteins were analyzed by gel electrophoresis. Labeled acyl-ACP was positively identified by immunoprecipitation with anti-V. harveyi ACP serum and comigration with acyl-ACP standards and [3H]beta-alanine-labeled bands on both sodium dodecyl sulfate- and urea-polyacrylamide gels. Surprisingly, most of the acyl-ACP label corresponded to fatty acid chain lengths of less than 14 carbons: C14, C12, C10, and C8 represented 33, 40, 14, and 8% of total [3H]14:0-derived acyl-ACPs, respectively, in a dark mutant (M17) of V. harveyi which lacks myristoyl-ACP esterase activity; however, labeled 14:0-ACP was absent in the wild-type strain. 14:0- and 12:0-ACP were also the predominant species labeled in complex medium. In contrast, short-chain acyl-ACPs (< or = C6) were the major labeled derivatives when V. harveyi was incubated with [3H]acetate, indicating that acyl-ACP labeling with [3H]14:0 in vivo is not due to the total degradation of [3H]14:0 to [3H]acetyl coenzyme A followed by resynthesis. Cerulenin increased the mass of medium- to long-chain acyl-ACPs (> or = C8) labeled with [3H]beta-alanine fivefold, while total incorporation of [3H]14:0 was not affected, although a shift to shorter chain lengths was noted. Additional bands which comigrated with acyl-ACP on sodium dodecyl sulfate gels were identified as lipopolysaccharide by acid hydrolysis and thin-layer chromatography. The levels of incorporation of [3H] 14:0 into acyl-ACP and lipopolysaccharide were 2 and 15%, respectively, of that into phospholipid by 10 min. Our results indicate that in contrast to the situation in Escherichia coli, exogenous fatty acids can be activated to acyl-ACP intermediates after partial degradation in V. harveyi and can effectively label products (i.e., lipid A) that require ACP as an acyl donor.     

A soluble fatty acyl-acyl carrier protein synthetase from the bioluminescent bacterium Vibrio harveyi

An enzyme catalyzing the ligation of long chain fatty acids to bacterial acyl carrier protein (ACP) has been detected and partially characterized in cell extracts of the bioluminescent bacterium Vibrio harveyi. Acyl-ACP synthetase activity (optimal pH 7.5-8.0) required millimolar concentrations of ATP and Mg2+ and was slightly activated by Ca2+, but was inhibited at high ionic strength and by Triton X-100. ACP from either Escherichia coli (apparent Km = 20 microM) or V. harveyi was used as a substrate. Of the [14C]fatty acids tested as substrates (8-18 carbons), a preference for fatty acids less than or equal to 14 carbons in length was observed. Vibrio harveyi acyl-ACP synthetase appears to be a soluble hydrophilic enzyme on the basis of subcellular fractionation and Triton X-114 phase partition assay. The enzyme was not coinduced with luciferase activity or light emission in vivo during the late exponential growth phase in liquid culture. Acyl-ACP synthetase activity was also detected in extracts from the luminescent bacterium Vibrio fischeri, but not Photobacterium phosphoreum. The cytosolic nature and enzymatic properties of V. harveyi acyl-ACP synthetase indicate that it may have a different physiological role than the membrane-bound activity of E. coli, which has been implicated in phosphatidylethanolamine turnover. Acyl-ACP synthetase activity in V. harveyi could be involved in the intracellular activation and elongation of exogenous fatty acids that occurs in this species or in the reactivation of free myristic acid generated by luciferase.     

The transfer of myristic and other fatty acids on lipid and viral protein acceptors in cultured cells infected with Semliki Forest and influenza virus.

[3H]Myristic and [3H]palmitic acid were compared as tracers for the fatty acylation of cellular lipids and viral glycoproteins in chicken embryo cells infected with fowl plague and Semliki Forest virus (SFV). Both of these substrates are incorporated into glycerolipids to a similar extent, whereas sphingolipids show much higher levels of palmitate than myristate after a 20 h labeling period. Both fatty acid species were found to be subject to metabolic conversions into longer chain fatty acids yielding 11.7% C16:0 from [3H]myristic and 11.8% C18:0 from [3H]palmitic acid. The reverse, a metabolic shortening of the exogenous acyl-chains yielding, for instance, significant levels of myristic acid from palmitic acid was not observed. Out of the various [3H]fatty acids present after in vivo labeling with [3H]myristic acid (C14:0) the elongated acyl-species arising from metabolic conversion (e.g., C16:0; C18:0) are preferred over myristic acid in the acylation of SFV E1 and E2 and of the influenza viral hemagglutinin (HA2). During acylation of exogenous E1 from SFV in vitro incorporation of palmitic acid from palmitoyl CoA exceeds that of myristic acid from myristoyl CoA by a factor of 37. This indicates that specificity for the incorporation of fatty acids into viral membrane proteins occurs at the level of the polypeptide acyltransferase(s).     

In vivo and in vitro acylation of polypeptides in Vibrio harveyi: identification of proteins involved in aldehyde production for bioluminescence.

Incubation of soluble extracts from Vibrio harveyi with [3H]tetradecanoic acid (+ ATP) resulted in the acylation of several polypeptides, including proteins with molecular masses near 20 kilodaltons (kDa), and at least five polypeptides in the 30- to 60-kDa range. However, in growing cells pulse-labeled in vivo with [3H]tetradecanoic acid, only three of these polypeptides, with apparent molecular masses of 54, 42, and 32 kDa, were specifically labeled. When extracts were acylated with [3H] tetradecanoyl coenzyme A, on the other hand, only the 32-kDa polypeptide was labeled. When luciferase-containing dark mutants of V. harveyi were investigated, acylated 32-kDa polypeptide was not detected in a fatty acid-stimulated mutant, whereas the 42-kDa polypeptide appeared to be lacking in a mutant defective in aldehyde synthesis. Acylation of both of these polypeptides also increased specifically during induction of bioluminescence in V. harveyi. These results suggest that the role of the 32-kDa polypeptide is to supply free fatty acids, whereas the 42-kDa protein may be responsible for activation of fatty acids for their subsequent reduction to form the aldehyde substrates of the bioluminescent reaction.     

Reversible inhibition of bacterial bioluminescence by long-chain fatty acids

Long-chain unsaturated fatty acids, as well as certain saturated fatty acids such as lauric acid, are inhibitors of the in vivo luminescence of wild-type strains of four species of luminous bacteria (Beneckea harveyi, Photobacterium phosphoerum, P. fischeri, andP. leiognathi) as well as the myristic acid-stimulated luminescence in the aldehyde dim mutant M17 ofB. harveyi. Based on studies with the system in vivo, the principal site of action of all the fatty acids appears to be the reductase activity that converts myristic acid to myristyl aldehyde. This was confirmed by in vitro studies: Reductase activity in crude cell-free extracts is strongly inhibited by oleic acid.     

Elo1p-dependent carboxy-terminal elongation of C14:1Delta(9) to C16:1Delta(11) fatty acids in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Saccharomyces cerevisiae medium-chain acyl elongase (ELO1) mutants have previously been isolated in screens for fatty acid synthetase (FAS) mutants that fail to grow on myristic acid (C14:0)-supplemented media. Here we report that wild-type cells cultivated in myristoleic acid (C14:1Delta(9))-supplemented media synthesized a novel unsaturated fatty acid that was identified as C16:1Delta(11) fatty acid by gas chromatography-mass spectroscopy. Synthesis of C16:1Delta(11) was dependent on a functional ELO1 gene, indicating that Elo1p catalyzes carboxy-terminal elongation of unsaturated fatty acids (alpha-elongation). In wild-type cells, the C16:1Delta(11) elongation product accounted for approximately 12% of the total fatty acids. This increased to 18% in cells that lacked a functional acyl chain desaturase (ole1Delta mutants) and hence were fully dependent on uptake and elongation of C14:1. The observation that ole1Delta mutant cells grew almost like wild type on medium supplemented with C14:1 indicated that uptake and elongation of unsaturated fatty acids were efficient. Interestingly, wild-type cells supplemented with either C14:1 or C16:1 fatty acids displayed dramatic alterations in their phospholipid composition, suggesting that the availability of acyl chains is a dominant determinant of the phospholipid class composition of cellular membranes. In particular, the relative content of the two major phospholipid classes, phosphatidylethanolamine and phosphatidylcholine, was strongly dependent on the chain length of the supplemented fatty acid. Moreover, analysis of the acyl chain composition of individual phospholipid classes in cells supplemented with C14:1 revealed that the relative degree of acyl chain saturation characteristic for each phospholipid class appeared to be conserved, despite the gross alteration in the cellular acyl chain pool. Comparison of the distribution of fatty acids that were taken up and elongated (C16:1Delta(11)) to those that were endogenously synthesized by fatty acid synthetase and then desaturated by Ole1p (C16:1Delta(9)) in individual phospholipid classes finally suggested the presence of two different pools of diacylglycerol species. These results will be discussed in terms of biosynthesis of different phospholipid classes via either the de novo or the Kennedy pathway.     

Specificity of fatty acid acylation of cellular proteins

Labeling of the BC3H1 muscle cell line with [3H] palmitate and [3H]myristate results in the incorporation of these fatty acids into a broad spectrum of different proteins. The patterns of proteins which are labeled with palmitate and myristate are distinct, indicating a high degree of specificity of fatty acylation with respect to acyl chain length. The protein-linked [3H]palmitate is released by treatment with neutral hydroxylamine or by alkaline methanolysis consistent with a thioester linkage or a very reactive ester linkage. In contrast, only a small fraction of the [3H]myristate which is attached to proteins is released by treatment with hydroxylamine or alkaline methanolysis, suggesting that myristate is linked to proteins primarily through amide bonds. The specificity of fatty acid acylation has also been examined in 3T3 mouse fibroblasts and in PC12 cells, a rat pheochromacytoma cell line. In both cells, palmitate is primarily linked to proteins by a hydroxylamine-labile linkage while the major fraction of the myristic acid (60-70%) is linked to protein via amide linkage and the remainder via an ester linkage. Major differences were noted in the rate of fatty acid metabolism in these cells; in particular in 3T3 cells only 33% of the radioactivity incorporated from myristic acid into proteins is in the form of fatty acids. The remainder is presumably the result of conversion of label to amino acids. In BC3H1 cells, palmitate- and myristate-containing proteins also exhibit differences in subcellular localization. [3H]Palmitate-labeled proteins are found almost exclusively in membranes, whereas [3H]myristate-labeled proteins are distributed in both the soluble and membrane fractions. These results demonstrate that fatty acid acylation is a covalent modification common to a wide range of cellular proteins and is not restricted solely to membrane-associated proteins. The major acylated proteins in the various cell lines examined appear to be different, suggesting that the acylated proteins are concerned with specialized cell functions. The linkages through which fatty acids are attached to proteins also appear to be highly specific with respect to the fatty acid chain length.     

Purification and characterization of fatty acyl-acyl carrier protein synthetase from Vibrio harveyi.

A Vibrio harveyi enzyme which catalyzes the ATP-dependent ligation of fatty acids to acyl carrier protein (ACP) has been purified 6,000-fold to apparent homogeneity by anion-exchange, gel filtration, and ACP-Sepharose affinity chromatography. Purified acyl-ACP synthetase migrated as a single 62-kDa band on sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis and as an 80-kDa protein by gel filtration under reducing conditions. Activity of the purified enzyme was lost within hours in the absence of glycerol and low concentrations of Triton X-100. Acyl-ACP synthetase exhibited Kms for myristic acid, ACP, and ATP of 7 microM, 18 microM, and 0.3 mM, respectively. The enzyme was specific for adenine-containing nucleotides, and AMP was the product of the reaction. No covalent acyl-enzyme intermediate was observed. Enzyme activity was stimulated up to 50% by iodoacetamide but inhibited > 80% by N-ethylmaleimide: inhibition by the latter was prevented by ATP and ACP but not myristic acid. Dithiothreitol and sulfhydryl-directed reagents also influenced enzyme size, activity, and elution pattern on anion-exchange resins. The function of acyl-ACP synthetase has not been established, but it may be related to the capacity of V. harveyi to elongate exogenous fatty acids by an ACP-dependent mechanism.     

Phospholipids of the differentiating species of Tetrahymena

The whole-cell phospholipid composition of the six known polymorphic species of Tetrahymena has been examined by [(3)H]acetate and [(3)H]myristic acid radiolabeling, and by gas-liquid chromatography of total phospholipid-bound fatty acids. Five of the polymorphic species contained similar phospholipid profiles following radiolabeling in that phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) was the predominant phospholipid; however, in cells of Tetrahymena patula LFF, aminoethylphosphonolipid was present in amounts nearly equal to PE. Tetrahymena patula LFF contained an unusually large percentage of sphingolipid (16.2% by [(3)H]acetate radiolabeling). Substantial differences were found in the fatty acid profiles of the polymorphic species, which included the degree of fatty acid unsaturation and relative weight percentages of odd-chain fatty acids. Tetrahymena vorax contained a low ratio of unsaturated C(18) fatty acids to saturated C(18) fatty acids as compared with all other species examined. The differentiating species generally contained a lesser percentage of monoenoic fatty acids and a lower ratio of unsaturated C(16) fatty acids to saturated C(16) fatty acids as compared with the two monomorphic species examined.     

Differential distribution and metabolism of arachidonic acid and docosahexaenoic acid by human placental choriocarcinoma (BeWo) cells

The time course of incorporation of [¹⁴C]arachidonic acid and [³H]docosahexaenoic acid into various lipid fractions in placental choriocarcinoma (BeWo) cells was investigated. BeWo cells were found to rapidly incorporate exogenous [¹⁴C]arachidonic acid and [³H] docosahexaenoic acid into the total cellular lipid pool. The extent of docosahexaenoic acid esterification was more rapid than for arachidonic acid, although this difference abated with time to leave only a small percentage of the fatty acids in their unesterified form. Furthermore, uptake was found to be saturable. In the cellular lipids these fatty acids were mainly esterified into the phospholipid (PL) and the triacyglycerol (TAG) fractions. Smaller amounts were also detected in the diacylglycerol and cholesterol ester fractions. Almost 60% of the total amount of [3H]Docosahexaenoic acid taken up by the cells was esterified into TAG whereas 37% was in PL fractions. For arachidonic acid the reverse was true, 60% of the total uptake was incorporated into PL fractions whereas less than 35% was in TAG. Marked differences were also found in the distribution of the fatty acids into individual phospholipid classes. The higher incorporation of docosahexaenoic acid and arachidonic acid was found in PC and PE, respectively. The greater cellular uptake of docosahexaenoic acid and its preferential incorporation in TAG suggests that both uptake and transport modes of this fatty acid by the placenta to fetus is different from that of arachidonic acid.     

Monoenoic fatty acid requirement in V79 cells

When lipids were removed from the culture medium, growth of V79 cells ceased. Supplementation with cis-octadecenoic acids satisfied the requirement for lipids by V79 cells. After starvation of the exogenous lipids by the shift-down of the medium to lipid-free medium, the content of octadecenoic acid in phospholipids increased more slowly in V79 cells than in V79-R cells, which can grow in the lipid-starved medium. The incorporation of [14C]acetic acid into monoenoic fatty acids and phospholipid molecular species containing monoenoic fatty acids in V79 cells was lower than that in V79-R cells. The reduced formation of monoenoic fatty acids was shown to be due to deficiency in the stimulation of activity of stearoyl-CoA desaturase which is a key enzyme to convert saturated fatty acids to monoenoic fatty acids.     

Fatty acid acylation of vaccinia virus proteins.

Labeling of vaccinia virus-infected cells with [3H]myristic acid resulted in the incorporation of label into two viral proteins with apparent molecular weights of 35,000 and 25,000 (designated M35 and M25, respectively). M35 and M25 were expressed in infected cells after the onset of viral DNA replication, and both proteins were present in purified intracellular virus particles. Virion localization experiments determined M25 to be a constituent of the virion envelope, while M35 appeared to be peripherally associated with the virion core. M35 and M25 labeled by [3H]myristic acid were stable to treatment with neutral hydroxylamine, suggesting an amide-linked acylation of the proteins. Chromatographic identification of the protein-bound fatty acid moieties liberated after acid methanolysis of M25, isolated from infected cells labeled during a 4-h pulse, resulted in the recovery of 25% of the protein-bound fatty acid as myristate-associated label and 75% as palmitate, indicating that interconversion of myristate to palmitate had occurred during the labeling period. Similar analyses of M25 and M35, isolated from infected cells labeled during a 0.5-h pulse, determined that 46 and 43%, respectively, of the protein-bound label had been elongated to palmitate even during this brief labeling period. In contrast, M25 and M35 isolated from purified intracellular virions labeled continuously during 24 h of growth contained 75 and 70%, respectively, myristate-associated label, suggesting greater stability of these proteins or a favored interaction of the proteins containing myristate with the maturing or intracellular virion.     

Altered acyltransferase activity in Escherichia coli associated with mutations in acyl coenzyme A synthetase

Growth of a temperature-sensitive general fatty acid synthesis mutant of Escherichia coli K12 at its restrictive temperature in the presence of exogenous palmitate results in lysis of the bacterium. Under these conditions, palmitate is incorporated into membrane phospholipid to a high level. Mutants of bacteria restricting this incorporation (having a palmitate-resistant phenotype) have been isolated and one such mutant, strain L8-2/3, has been further characterized. This mutant has lowered acyl-CoA synthetase (fadD) activity (25-33% of normal) and consequently is defective in fatty acid uptake. This lowered uptake could explain the palmitate-resistant phenotype of strain L8-2/3. However, both in vivo (fatty acid composition and positional distribution data) and in vitro (acyltransferase activity measurements) experiments suggest that this mutant is also altered in its acyltransferase activities. The mutation(s) of strain L8-2/3 appears to allow increased (approximately 2-fold) incorporation of myristate (and possible unsaturated fatty acids) into position 2 of 1-acyl-sn-glycerol 3-phosphate but normal palmitate incorporation into the same position. The incorporation of palmitate, myristate, and oleate into position 1 of sn-glycerol 3-phosphate by strain L8-2/3 is also higher than that observed with the parent, strain L8-2. Replacing the partially defective fadD gene of strain L8-2/3 with a wild type allele conferred on this strain the palmitate sensitivity and the acyltransferase activity of the parent strain L8-2. This finding, taken together with other data, suggests that acyl-CoA synthetase interacts with the acyltransferase(s) in some manner to influence the fatty acid specificity of the acyltransferase.     

Fatty acid metabolism in sn-glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase (plsB) mutants.

Fatty acid metabolism was examined in Escherichia coli plsB mutants that were conditionally defective in sn-glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase activity. The fatty acids synthesized when acyl transfer to glycerol-3-phosphate was inhibited were preferentially transferred to phosphatidylglycerol. A comparison of the ratio of phospholipid species labeled with 32Pi and [3H]acetate in the presence and absence of glycerol-3-phosphate indicated that [3H]acetate incorporation into phosphatidylglycerol was due to fatty acid turnover. A significant contraction of the acetyl coenzyme A pool after glycerol-3-phosphate starvation of the plsB mutant precluded the quantitative assessment of the rate of phosphatidylglycerol fatty acid labeling. Fatty acid chain length in membrane phospholipids increased as the concentration of the glycerol-3-phosphate growth supplement decreased, and after the abrupt cessation of phospholipid biosynthesis abnormally long chain fatty acids were excreted into the growth medium. These data suggest that the acyl moieties of phosphatidylglycerol are metabolically active, and that competition between fatty acid elongation and acyl transfer is an important determinant of the acyl chain length in membrane phospholipids.     

Pathways for the incorporation of exogenous fatty acids into phosphatidylethanolamine in Escherichia coli

Two distinct pathways for the incorporation of exogenous fatty acids into phospholipids were identified in Escherichia coli. The predominant route originates with the activation of fatty acids by acyl-CoA synthetase followed by the distribution of the acyl moieties into all phospholipid classes via the sn-glycerol-3-phosphate acyltransferase reaction. This pathway was blocked in mutants (fadD) lacking acyl-CoA synthetase activity. In fadD strains, exogenous fatty acids were introduced exclusively into the 1-position of phosphatidylethanolamine. This secondary route is related to 1-position fatty acid turnover in phosphatidylethanolamine and proceeds via the acyl-acyl carrier protein synthetase/2-acylglycerophosphoethanolamine acyltransferase system. The turnover pathway exhibited a preference for saturated fatty acids, whereas the acyl-CoA synthetase-dependent pathway was less discriminating. Both pathways were inhibited in mutants (fadL) lacking the fatty acid permease, demonstrating that the fadL gene product translocates exogenous fatty acids to an intracellular pool accessible to both synthetases. These data demonstrate that acyl-CoA synthetase is not required for fatty acid transport in E. coli and that the metabolism of exogenous fatty acids is segregated from the metabolism of acyl-acyl carrier proteins derived from fatty acid biosynthesis.     

11-(Ethylthio)undecanoic acid. A myristic acid analogue of altered hydrophobicity which is functional for peptide N-myristoylation with wheat germ and yeast acyltransferase

The covalent attachment of myristic acid to the NH2-terminal glycine residue of proteins is catalyzed by the enzyme myristoyl CoA:protein N-myristoyltransferase (NMT). Using synthetic octapeptide substrates we have identified and characterized an NMT activity in wheat germ lysates used for cell-free translation of exogenous mRNAs. C-12 and C-14 fatty acids are efficiently transferred to the peptides by this plant NMT, but C-10 and C-16 fatty acids are not. Glycine is required as the NH2-terminal residue: peptides with an NH2-terminal alanine were not substrates. Peptides with proline, aspartic acid, or tyrosine residues adjacent to the NH2-terminal glycine were also not myristoylated. Serine in the fifth position reduced the peptide's Km up to 4000-fold. We have chemically synthesized a sulfur analogue of myristate, 11-(ethylthio)undecanoic acid. Its CoA ester is as good a substrate as myristoyl-CoA for both wheat germ and yeast NMT. Peptides linked to 11-(ethylthio)undecanoic acid are less hydrophobic than the corresponding myristoylpeptides. 11-(Ethylthio)-undecanoic acid may, therefore, help define the role of myristic acid in targeting of acyl proteins within cells.     

Immobilization antigens from Tetrahymena thermophila are glycosyl-phosphatidylinositol-linked proteins.

We have studied four strains of Tetrahymena thermophila, each of which expresses a different allele of the SerH gene and produces a distinctive surface protein of the immobilization antigen (i-antigen) class. Following exposure of the strains to [3H]ethanolamine or [3H]myristic acid, a protein corresponding in molecular mass to the characteristic i-antigen for that strain became highly labeled, as determined by mobility in sodium dodecylsulfate-polyacrylamide electrophoresis gels. Furthermore, antibodies raised to the i-antigens of the T. thermophila strains selectively immunoprecipitated radioactive proteins having molecular mass identical to that of the i-antigen characteristic for that particular strain. The lipid moieties labeled by [3H]myristate were not susceptible to hydrolysis by exogenous phosphatidylinositol-specific phospholipase C from bacteria. However, when protein extraction was carried out in the absence of phospholipase C inhibitors, radioactive fatty acids derived from [3H]myristate were rapidly cleaved from the putative i-antigens. On the basis of available data, it was concluded that T. thermophila i-antigens contain covalently-linked glycosyl-phosphatidylinositol anchors.