Regulation of canonical transient receptor potential (TRPC) channel function by diacylglycerol and protein kinase C

The mechanism of receptor-induced activation of the ubiquitously expressed family of mammalian canonical transient receptor potential (TRPC) channels has been the focus of intense study. Primarily responding to phospholipase C (PLC)-coupled receptors, the channels are reported to receive modulatory input from diacylglycerol, endoplasmic reticulum inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptors and Ca2+ stores. Analysis of TRPC5 channels transfected within DT40 B cells and deletion mutants thereof revealed efficient activation in response to PLC-beta or PLC-gamma activation, which was independent of inositol 1,4,5-trisphoshate receptors or the content of stores. In both HEK293 cells and DT40 cells, TRPC5 and TRPC3 channel responses to PLC activation were highly analogous, but only TRPC3 and not TRPC5 channels responded to the addition of the permeant diacylglycerol (DAG) analogue, 1-oleoyl-2-acetyl-sn-glycerol (OAG). However, OAG application or elevated endogenous DAG, resulting from either DAG lipase or DAG kinase inhibition, completely prevented TRPC5 or TRPC4 activation. This inhibitory action of DAG on TRPC5 and TRPC4 channels was clearly mediated by protein kinase C (PKC), in distinction to the stimulatory action of DAG on TRPC3, which is established to be PKC-independent. PKC activation totally blocked TRPC3 channel activation in response to OAG, and the activation was restored by PKC-blockade. PKC inhibition resulted in decreased TRPC3 channel deactivation. Store-operated Ca2+ entry in response to PLC-coupled receptor activation was substantially reduced by OAG or DAG-lipase inhibition in a PKC-dependent manner. However, store-operated Ca2+ entry in response to the pump blocker, thapsigargin, was unaffected by PKC. The results reveal that each TRPC subtype is strongly inhibited by DAG-induced PKC activation, reflecting a likely universal feedback control on TRPCs, and that DAG-mediated PKC-independent activation of TRPC channels is highly subtype-specific. The profound yet distinct control by PKC and DAG of the activation of TRPC channel subtypes is likely the basis of a spectrum of regulatory phenotypes of expressed TRPC channels.     

The TRPC3/6/7 subfamily of cation channels

The mammalian transient receptor potential (TRP) proteins consist of a superfamily of Ca2+-permeant non-selective cation channels with structural similarities to Drosophila TRP. The TRP superfamily can be divided into three major families, among them the "canonical TRP" family (TRPC). The seven protein products of the mammalian TRPC family of genes (designated TRPC1-7) share in common the activation through PLC-coupled receptors and have been proposed to encode components of native store-operated channels in different cell types. In addition, the three members of the TRPC3/6/7 subfamily of TRPC channels can be activated by diacylglycerol analogs, providing a possible mechanism of activation of these channels by PLC-coupled receptors. This review summarizes the current knowledge about the mechanism of activation of the TRPC3/6/7 subfamily, as well as the potential role of these proteins as components of native Ca2+-permeant channels.     

Muscarinic acetylcholine receptors activate TRPC6 channels in PC12D cells via Ca2+ store-independent mechanisms

In this paper we report that stimulation of mAChRs in PC12D cells activates Ca2+ channels that are regulated independently of intracellular Ca2+ stores. In nominally Ca2+-free medium, exposure of PC12D cells to carbachol stimulates a robust influx of Ba2+, a Ca2+ substitute. This influx is blocked by atropine, but not by inhibitors of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor or L-, N-, or T-type voltage-regulated Ca2+ channels. By contrast, depletion of intracellular Ca2+ stores with thapsigargin only weakly stimulates Ba2+ influx. Unlike store-operated Ca2+ channels (SOCCs), which close only after intracellular Ca2+ stores refill, channels mediating carbachol-stimulated Ba2+ influx rapidly close following the inactivation of mAChRs with atropine. Ba2+ influx is inhibited by extracellular Ca2+, by the Ca2+ channel blocker SKF-96365, and by activation of protein kinase C (PKC). Exogenous expression of antisense RNA encoding the rat canonical-transient receptor potential Ca2+ channel subtype 6 (TRPC6) or the N-terminal domain of TRPC6 blocks carbachol-stimulated Ba2+ influx in PC12D cells. Expression of TRPC6 antisense RNA or the TRPC6 N-terminal domain also blocks Ba2+ influx stimulated by 1-oleoyl-2-acetyl-sn-glycerol (OAG), a diacylglycerol analog previously shown to activate exogenously expressed TRPC6 channels. These data show that mAChRs in PC12D cells activate endogenous Ca2+ channels that are regulated independently of Ca2+ stores and require the expression of TRPC6.     

Molecular analysis of a store-operated and 2-acetyl-sn-glycerol-sensitive non-selective cation channel. Heteromeric assembly of TRPC1-TRPC3

We have reported that internal Ca2+ store depletion in HSY cells stimulates a nonselective cation current which is distinct from I(CRAC) in RBL cells and TRPC1-dependent I(SOC) in HSG cells (Liu, X., Groschner, K., and Ambudkar, I. S. (2004) J. Membr. Biol. 200, 93-104). Here we have analyzed the molecular composition of this channel. Both thapsigargin (Tg) and 2-acetyl-sn-glycerol (OAG) stimulated similar non-selective cation currents and Ca2+ entry in HSY cells. The effects of Tg and OAG were not additive. HSY cells endogenously expressed TRPC1, TRPC3, and TRPC4 but not TRPC5 or TRPC6. Immunoprecipitation of TRPC1 pulled down TRPC3 but not TRPC4. Conversely, TRPC1 co-immunoprecipitated with TRPC3. Expression of antisense TRPC1 decreased (i) Tg- and OAG-stimulated currents and Ca2+ entry and (ii) the level of endogenous TRPC1 but not TRPC4. Antisense TRPC3 similarly reduced Ca2+ entry and endogenous TRPC3. Yeast two-hybrid analysis revealed an interaction between NTRPC1 and NTRPC3 (CTRPC1-CTRPC3, CTRPC3-CTRPC1, or CTRPC1-NTRPC3 did not interact), which was confirmed by glutathione S-transferase (GST) pull-down assays (GST-NTRPC3 pulled down TRPC1 and vice versa). Expression of NTRPC1 or NTRPC3 induced similar dominant suppression of Tg- and OAG-stimulated Ca2+ entry. NTRPC3 did not alter surface expression of TRPC1 or TRPC3 but disrupted TRPC1-TRPC3 association. In aggregate, our data demonstrate that TRPC1 and TRPC3 co-assemble, via N-terminal interactions, to form a heteromeric store-operated non-selective cation channel in HSY cells. Thus selective association between TRPCs generate distinct store-operated channels. Diversity of store-operated channels might be related to the physiology of the different cell types.     

TRPC channels and diacylglycerol dependent calcium signaling in rat sensory neurons

Transient receptor potential (TRP) channels of the TRPV, TRPA, and TRPM subfamilies play important roles in somatosensation including nociception. While particularly the Thermo TRPs have been extensively investigated in sensory neurons, the relevance of the subclass of "canonical" TRPC channels in primary afferents is yet elusive. In the present study, we investigated the presence and contribution to Ca(2+) transients of TRPC channels in dorsal root ganglion neurons. We found that six of the seven known TRPC subtypes were expressed in lumbar DRG, with TRPC1, C3, and C6 being the most abundant. Microfluorimetric calcium measurements showed Ca(2+) influx induced by oleylacylglycerol (OAG), an activator of the TRPC3/C6/C7 subgroup. Furthermore, OAG induced rises in [Ca(2+)](i) were inhibited by SKF96365, an inhibitor of receptor and store operated calcium channel. OAG induced calcium transients were also inhibited by blockers of diacylglycerol (DAG) lipase, lipoxygenase or cyclooxygenase and, intriguingly, by inhibitors of the capsaicin receptor TRPV1. Notably, SKF96365 did not affect capsaicin-induced calcium transients. Taken together, our findings suggest that TRPC are functionally expressed in subpopulations of DRG neurons. These channels, along with TRPV1, contribute to calcium homeostasis in rat sensory neurons.     

The Na+/Ca2+ exchange inhibitor KB-R7943 potently blocks TRPC channels

Na(+)/Ca(2+) exchangers (NCXs) and members of the canonical transient receptor potential (TRPC) channels play an important role in Ca(2+) homeostasis in heart and brain. With respect to their overlapping expression and their role as physiological Ca(2+) influx pathways a functional discrimination of both mechanisms seems to be necessary. Here, the effect of the reverse-mode NCX inhibitor KB-R7943 was investigated on different TRPC channels heterologously expressed in HEK293 cells. In patch-clamp recordings KB-R7943 potently blocked currents through TRPC3 (IC(50)=0.46 microM), TRPC6 (IC(50)=0.71 microM), and TRPC5 (IC(50)=1.38 microM). 1-Oleoyl-2-acetyl-sn-glycerol-induced Ca(2+) entry was nearly completely suppressed by 10 microM KB-R7943 in TRPC6-transfected cells. Thus, KB-R7943 is able to block receptor-operated TRP channels at concentrations which are equal or below those required to inhibit reverse-mode NCX activity. These data further suggest that the protective effects of KB-R7943 in ischemic tissue may, at least partly, be due to inhibition of TRPC channels.     

VAMP2-dependent exocytosis regulates plasma membrane insertion of TRPC3 channels and contributes to agonist-stimulated Ca2+ influx

The mechanism(s) involved in agonist-stimulation of TRPC3 channels is not yet known. Here we demonstrate that TRPC3-N terminus interacts with VAMP2 and alphaSNAP. Further, endogenous and exogenously expressed TRPC3 colocalized and coimmunoprecipitated with SNARE proteins in neuronal and epithelial cells. Imaging of GFP-TRPC3 revealed its localization in the plasma membrane region and in mobile intracellular vesicles. Recovery of TRPC3-GFP fluorescence after photobleaching of the plasma membrane region was decreased by brefeldin-A or BAPTA-AM. Cleavage of VAMP2 with tetanus toxin (TeNT) did not prevent delivery of TRPC3 to the plasma membrane region but reduced its surface expression. TeNT also decreased carbachol and OAG, but not thapsigargin, stimulated Ca2+ influx. Importantly, carbachol, not thapsigargin, increased surface expression of TRPC3 that was attenuated by TeNT and not by BAPTA. In aggregate, these data suggest that VAMP2-dependent exocytosis regulates plasma membrane insertion of TRPC3 channels and contributes to carbachol-stimulation of Ca2+ influx.     

Junctate, an inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate receptor associated protein, is present in rodent sperm and binds TRPC2 and TRPC5 but not TRPC1 channels

The acrosome reaction, the first step of the fertilization, is induced by calcium influx through Canonical Transient Receptor Potential channels (TRPC). The molecular nature of TRPC involved is still a debated question. In mouse, TRPC2 plays the most important role and is responsible for the calcium plateau. However, TRPC1 and TRPC5 are also localized in the acrosomal crescent of the sperm head and may participate in calcium signaling, especially in TRPC2-deficient mice. Activation of TRPC channels is an unresolved question in germ and somatic cells as well. In particular, in sperm, little is known concerning the molecular events leading to TRPC2 activation. From the discovery of IP3R binding domains on TRPC2, it has been suggested that TRPC channel activation may be due to a conformational coupling between IP3R and TRPC channels. Moreover, recent data demonstrate that junctate, an IP3R associated protein, participates also in the gating of some TRPC. In this study, we demonstrate that junctate is expressed in sperm and co-localizes with the IP3R in the acrosomal crescent of the anterior head of rodent sperm. Consistent with its specific localization, we show by pull-down experiments that junctate interacts with TRPC2 and TRPC5 but not with TRPC1. We focused on the interaction between TRPC2 and junctate, and we show that the N-terminus of junctate interacts with the C-terminus of TRPC2, both in vitro and in a heterologous expression system. We show that junctate binds to TRPC2 independently of the calcium concentration and that the junctate binding site does not overlap with the common IP3R/calmodulin binding sites. TRPC2 gating is downstream phospholipase C activation, which is a key and necessary step during the acrosome reaction. TRPC2 may then be activated directly by diacylglycerol (DAG), as in neurons of the vomeronasal organ. In the present study, we investigated whether DAG could promote the acrosome reaction. We found that 100 microM OAG, a permeant DAG analogue, was unable to trigger the acrosome reaction. Altogether, these results provide a new hypothesis concerning sperm TRPC2 gating: TRPC2 activation may be due to modifications of its interaction with both junctate and IP3R, induced by depletion of calcium from the acrosomal vesicle.     

Receptor-operated Ca2+ entry mediated by TRPC3/TRPC6 proteins in rat prostate smooth muscle (PS1) cell line

Prostate smooth muscle cells predominantly express alpha1-adrenoceptors (alpha1-AR). alpha1-AR antagonists induce prostate smooth muscle relaxation and therefore they are useful therapeutic compounds for the treatment of benign prostatic hyperplasia symptoms. However, the Ca(2+) entry pathways associated with the activation of alpha1-AR in the prostate have yet to be elucidated. In many cell types, mammalian homologues of transient receptor potential (TRP) genes, first identified in Drosophila, encode TRPC (canonical TRP) proteins. They function as receptor-operated channels (ROCs) which are involved in various physiological processes such as contraction, proliferation, apoptosis, and differentiation. To date, the expression and function of TRPC channels have not been studied in prostate smooth muscle. In fura-2 loaded PS1 (a prostate smooth muscle cell line) which express endogenous alpha1A-ARs, alpha-agonists epinephrine (EPI), and phenylephrine (PHE) induced Ca(2+) influx which depended on the extracellular Ca(2+) and PLC activation but was independent of PKC activation. Thus, we have tested two membrane-permeable analogues of diacylglycerol (DAG), oleoyl-acyl-sn-glycerol (OAG) and 1,2-dioctanoyl-sn-glycerol (DOG). They initiated Ca(2+) influx whose properties were similar to those induced by the alpha-agonists. Sensitivity to 2-aminoethyl diphenylborate (2-APB), SKF-96365 and flufenamate implies that Ca(2+)-permeable channels mediated both alpha-agonist- and OAG-evoked Ca(2+) influx. Following the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) Ca(2+) store depletion by thapsigargin (Tg), a SERCA inhibitor, OAG and PHE were both still able to activate Ca(2+) influx. However, OAG failed to enhance Ca(2+) influx when added in the presence of an alpha-agonist. RT-PCR and Western blotting performed on PS1 cells revealed the presence of mRNAs and the corresponding TRPC3 and TRPC6 proteins. Experiments using an antisense strategy showed that both alpha-agonist- and OAG-induced Ca(2+) influx required TRPC3 and TRPC6, whereas the Tg-activated ("capacitative") Ca(2+) entry involved only TRPC3 encoded protein. It may be thus concluded that PS1 cells express TRPC3 and TRPC6 proteins which function as receptor- and store-operated Ca(2+) entry pathways.     

Overexpression of TRPC3 reduces the content of intracellular calcium stores in HEK-293 cells

The mammalian canonical transient receptor channels (TRPCs) are considered to be candidates for store-operated calcium channels (SOCCs). Many studies have addressed how TRPC3 channels are affected by depletion of intracellular calcium stores. Conflicting results have been shown for TRPC3 regarding its function, and this has been linked to its level of expression in various systems. In the present study, we have investigated how overexpression of TRPC3 interferes with the regulation of intracellular calcium stores. We demonstrate that overexpression of TRPC3 reduces the mobilization of calcium in response to stimulation of the cells with thapsigargin (TG) or the G-protein coupled receptor agonist sphingosine-1-phosphate (S1P). Our results indicate that this is the result of the expression of TRPC3 channels in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), thus depleting ER calcium stores. OAG evoked calcium entry in cells overexpressing TRPC3, indicating that functional TRPC3 channels were also expressed in the plasma membrane. Taken together, our results show that overexpression of the putative SOCC, TRPC3, actually reduces the calcium content of intracellular stores, but does not enhance agonist-evoked or store-dependent calcium entry. Our results may, in part, explain the conflicting results obtained in previous studies on the actions of TRPC3 channels.     

Calcium-dependent expression of transient receptor potential canonical type 3 channels in patients with chronic kidney disease

It is unknown whether extracellular calcium may regulate the expression of transient receptor potential canonical type 3 (TRPC3) channels in patients with chronic kidney disease. Using quantitative in-cell Western assay we compared the expression of TRPC3 channel protein in monocytes from 20 patients with chronic kidney disease and 19 age- and sex-matched healthy control subjects. TRPC3 channels were identified by immunoblotting using specific antibodies and TRPC3 protein was further confirmed by mass spectrometry. We observed a significant increase of TRPC3 channel protein expression in patients with chronic kidney disease compared to healthy control subjects (normalized expression, 0.42±0.06 vs. 0.19±0.03; p<0.01). Expression of TRPC3 was significantly inversely correlated with estimated glomerular filtration rates (Spearman r=-0.41) or serum calcium concentration (Spearman r=-0.34). During a hemodialysis session serum calcium concentrations significantly increased, whereas the expression of TRPC3 channels and calcium influx significantly decreased. In vitro studies confirmed that higher calcium concentrations but not magnesium, barium nor sodium concentrations significantly decreased TRPC3 expression in human monocytes. This study indicates that reduced extracellular calcium concentrations up-regulate TRPC3 channel protein expression in patients with chronic kidney disease.     

TRPC4 can be activated by G-protein-coupled receptors and provides sufficient Ca(2+) to trigger exocytosis in neuroendocrine cells

Transient receptor potential (TRP) channels form a large family of plasma membrane cation channels. Mammalian members of the "short" TRP family (TRP channel (TRPC) 1-7 are Ca(2+)-permeant, non-selective cation channels that are widely expressed in various cell types, including neurons. TRPC activity is linked through unknown mechanisms to G-protein-coupled receptors or receptor tyrosine kinases that activate phospholipase C. To investigate the properties and function of TRPC4 in neuronally derived cells, we transiently expressed mouse TRPC4 and histamine H(1) receptor in mouse adrenal chromaffin cells and PC12 cells. Histamine, but not thapsigargin, stimulated Mn(2+) influx in transfected cells. In the whole-cell patch clamp mode, histamine triggered a transient current in TRPC4-expressing cells. No current was evoked by perfusion with inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate. When exocytosis was monitored with the capacitance detection technique, the magnitude of the membrane capacitance increase (Delta C(m)) on application of histamine in H(1) receptor/TRPC4-expressing chromaffin cells was comparable with that triggered by a train of depolarizing pulses. Our results indicate that TRPC4 channels behave as receptor, but not store-operated, channels in neuronally derived cells. TRPC4 channels can provide sufficient Ca(2+) influx to trigger a robust secretory response in voltage-clamped neurosecretory cells. Similar mechanisms may modulate exocytosis in other neuronal systems.     

Involvement of TRPC in the abnormal calcium influx observed in dystrophic (mdx) mouse skeletal muscle fibers

Duchenne muscular dystrophy results from the lack of dystrophin, a cytoskeletal protein associated with the inner surface membrane, in skeletal muscle. The absence of dystrophin induces an abnormal increase of sarcolemmal calcium influx through cationic channels in adult skeletal muscle fibers from dystrophic (mdx) mice. We observed that the activity of these channels was increased after depletion of the stores of calcium with thapsigargin or caffeine. By analogy with the situation observed in nonexcitable cells, we therefore hypothesized that these store-operated channels could belong to the transient receptor potential channel (TRPC) family. We measured the expression of TRPC isoforms in normal and mdx adult skeletal muscles fibers, and among the seven known isoforms, five were detected (TRPC1, 2, 3, 4, and 6) by RT-PCR. Western blot analysis and immunocytochemistry of normal and mdx muscle fibers demonstrated the localization of TRPC1, 4, and 6 proteins at the plasma membrane. Therefore, an antisense strategy was used to repress these TRPC isoforms. In parallel with the repression of the TRPCs, we observed that the occurrence of calcium leak channels was decreased to one tenth of its control value (patch-clamp technique), showing the involvement of TRPC in the abnormal calcium influx observed in dystrophic fibers.     

Target-cell contact activates a highly selective capacitative calcium entry pathway in cytotoxic T lymphocytes

Calcium influx is critical for T cell activation. Evidence has been presented that T cell receptor-stimulated calcium influx in helper T lymphocytes occurs via channels activated as a consequence of depletion of intracellular calcium stores, a mechanism known as capacitative Ca(2+) entry (CCE). However, two key questions have not been addressed. First, the mechanism of calcium influx in cytotoxic T cells has not been examined. While the T cell receptor-mediated early signals in helper and cytotoxic T cells are similar, the physiology of the cells is strikingly different, raising the possibility that the mechanism of calcium influx is also different. Second, contact of T cells with antigen-presenting cells or targets involves a host of intercellular interactions in addition to those between antigen-MHC and the T cell receptor. The possibility that calcium influx pathways in addition to those activated via the T cell receptor may be activated by contact with relevant cells has not been addressed. We have used imaging techniques to show that target-cell-stimulated calcium influx in CTLs occurs primarily through CCE. We investigated the permeability of the CTL influx pathway for divalent cations, and compared it to the permeability of CCE in Jurkat human leukemic T cells. CCE in CTLs shows a similar ability to discriminate between calcium, barium, and strontium as CCE in Jurkat human leukemic T lymphocytes, where CCE is likely to mediated by Ca(2+) release-activated Ca(2+) current (CRAC) channels, suggesting that CRAC channels also underlie CCE in CTLs. These results are the first determination of the mechanism of calcium influx in cytotoxic T cells and the first demonstration that cell contact-mediated calcium signals in T cells occur via depletion-activated channels.     

ATP promotes NCX-reversal in aortic smooth muscle cells by DAG-activated Na+ entry

Reversal of the plasma membrane Na(+)/Ca(2+) exchanger (NCX) has been shown to mediate Ca(2+) influx in response to activation of G-protein linked receptors. Functional coupling of reverse-mode NCX with canonical transient receptor potential channels (TRPC), specifically TRPC6, has recently been demonstrated by our laboratory to mediate Ca(2+) influx in rat aortic smooth muscle cells (RASMCs) following ATP stimulation. In this communication, we provide further detail of this functional coupling by indirectly measuring NCX reversal. We found that NCX reversal, induced by the removal of extracellular Na(+), was increased following stimulation with ATP and the diacylglycerol analog 1-Oleoyl-2-acetyl-sn-glycerol. This increased NCX reversal was attenuated by SKF-96365, an inhibitor of non-selective cation channels, and by activation of protein kinase C with phorbol ester 12-tetradecanoylphorbol-13 acetate. These data are consistent with the known properties of TRPC6 and further support that functional coupling of TRPC6 and NCX occurs via a receptor-operated, rather than store-operated, cascade in RASMCs.     

Hyperpolarization, but not depolarization, increases intracellular Ca(2+) level in cultured chick myoblasts.

Ca(2+) influx appears to be important for triggering myoblast fusion. It remains, however, unclear how Ca(2+) influx rises prior to myoblast fusion. The present study examines a possible involvement of the voltage-dependent Ca(2+) influx pathways. Treatment with the L-type Ca(2+) channel blockers, diltiazem, and nifedipine did not alter cytosolic Ca(2+) levels. Depolarization with high K(+) solution and activation of Ca(2+) channel with Bay K 8644, and agonist of voltage dependent Ca(2+) channels, failed to elicit increases intracellular Ca(2+) level, indicating the absence of depolarization-operated mechanisms. In contrast, phloretin, an agonist of Ca(2+)-activated potassium (K(Ca)) channels, was able to hyperpolarize membrane potential and promoted Ca(2+) influx. These effects were completely abolished by treatment of charybdotoxin, a specific inhibitor of K(Ca) channels. In addition, gadolinium, a potent stretch-activated channel (SAC) blocker, prevented the phloretin-mediated Ca(2+) increase, indicating the involvement of SACs in Ca(2+) influx. Furthermore, phloretin stimulated precocious myoblast fusion and this effect was blocked with gadolinium or charybdotoxin. Taken together, these results suggest that induced hyperpolarization, but not depolarization increases Ca(2+) influx through stretch-activated channels, and in turn triggers myoblast fusion.     

Sensitizing effect of lysophosphatidic acid on Ca2+ response to hypotonic stress in cultured lens epithelial cells.

The effects of lysophosphatidic acid (LPA), a bioactive phospholipid, on the response of the cytosolic free Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i) to hypotonic stress were studied in cultured bovine lens epithelial cells, to test whether LPA affects cellular swelling-mediated increase in [Ca2+]i, which may relate to formation of sugar cataracts. Exposure of the cells to a 30% hypotonic stress caused only a slight increase in [Ca2+]i. Pretreatment with LPA (10 microM) significantly augmented the hypotonic stress-induced [Ca2+]i response, whereas addition of LPA to the cells did not affect [Ca2+]i. The hypotonic stress-induced increase in [Ca2+]i in the presence of LPA was inhibited by Gd3+, a blocker of mechanosensitive cation channels, but not by nicardipine, a L-type Ca2+ channel blocker, or thapsigargin, an inhibitor of endoplasmic reticulum-ATPase pump. These results show that LPA sensitizes the response to hypotonic stress via increase in Ca2+ influx through Gd3+-sensitive stretch-activated ion channels, and not via Ca2+ release from intracellular stores. On the other hand, LPA did not affect the [Ca2+]i response to ATP, a Ca2+ mobilizing agonist. Therefore, LPA sensitizes the hypotonic stress-induced [Ca2+]i response in lens epithelial cells, suggesting that LPA potentiates the development of cataracts induced by cellular swelling such as sugar cataract.     

Lysophosphatidic acid is a mediator of Trp-Lys-Tyr-Met-Val-d-Met-induced calcium influx

Intracellular calcium (Ca(2+)) homeostasis is very strictly regulated, and the activation of G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) can cause two different calcium changes, intracellular calcium release, and calcium influx. In this study, we investigated the possible role of lysophosphatidic acid (LPA) on GPCR-induced Ca(2+) signaling. The addition of exogenous LPA induced dramatic Ca(2+) influx but not intracellular Ca(2+) release in U937 cells. LPA-induced Ca(2+) influx was not affected by pertussis toxin and phospholipase C inhibitor (U73122), ruling out the involvement of pertussis toxin-sensitive G-proteins, and phospholipase C. Stimulation of U937 cells with Trp-Lys-Tyr-Met-Val-D-Met (WKYMVm), which binds to formyl peptide receptor like 1, enhanced phospholipase A(2) and phospholipase D activation, indicating LPA formation. The inhibition of LPA synthesis by phospholipase A(2)-specific inhibitor (MAFP) or n-butanol significantly inhibited WKYMVm-induced Ca(2+) influx, suggesting a crucial role for LPA in the process. Taken together, we suggest that LPA mediates WKYMVm-induced Ca(2+) influx.