The biodiversity of air spora in an Italian vineyard

Biodiversity indices are frequently used to provide a numerical value of the diversity of species within an ecological community. To study fungal biodiversity in the air, a 7-day recording Hirst-type spore trap was used. The daily concentration of 124 taxa was recorded in an Italian vineyard. The predominant fungi were: Cladosporium spp., unknown 3-septate fusiform spore, and Alternaria spp. Shannon’s and Simpson’s biodiversity indices and evenness were calculated first for air spora. Meteorological circumstances affected the biodiversity; positive correlations were found between Simpson’s biodiversity index and precipitation, but no significant correlations were found with Shannon’s diversity index and evenness. To predict Simpson’s index for airborne fungi, regression analysis was performed. It was shown that the best estimator, sun hours, negatively affected the index. The biodiversity of the dominant species was low on dry days, since Cladosporium alone had much higher abundance on such days than other species.     

Recommendations for the use of species diversity indices with reference to a recently published article as an example

There are some recommendations for the use of species diversity indices in a paper recently published in this journal by M. Ohsawa on the species richness and composition of weevils in five forest types in the middle region of Japan. Because several factors, such as small sample size, calculation of Simpson’s diversity index by the use of the original equation of Simpson’s measure of concentration D, and a weak point in the Shannon–Wiener diversity index H′, may have led to biased estimates, I recalculated these indices using combined species diversity values of the five forest types. As the general tendencies of 1−D and H′ values calculated here were similar to those in Ohsawa’s paper, there is no need to propose any change to his view. However, these recalculated diversity indices indicated that they are values which are more suitable for use. It should be noted that the characteristics and weak point associated with the diversity indices need to be taken into account in future studies.     

Field trials to evaluate effects of Bt-transgenic silage corn expressing the Cry1Ab insecticidal toxin on non-target soil arthropods in northern New England, USA

Traditionally, control of European corn borer (Ostrinia nubilalis) Hübner has been achieved through the use of chemical insecticides. With increasing emphasis on reducing pesticide inputs in agricultural production, alternative management technologies are now being used including transgenic silage corn modified to express Cry1Ab protein toxins derived from Bacillus thuringiensis (Bt) Berliner. The Cry1Ab toxin is expressed by all plant cells and throughout the growing season. Furthermore, the toxins are exuded from corn plant roots into the rhizosphere, raising concerns over possible side-effects on non-target beneficial organisms in the same habitat. In addition, detrivores are exposed to crop residues containing the toxin when incorporated into the soil. The current 2-year study (2003, 2004) evaluated effects of two silage-corn varieties: Pioneer var. 38A25 (Bt-corn expressing the Cry1Ab toxin) and Pioneer var. 38A24 (parent isoline) on species diversity and evenness of carabid beetles and Collembola. Pitfall traps were used to collect surface-dwelling species on a bimonthly schedule from April to October. Soil cores were taken once a month from April to October to sample subterranean species, which were extracted using Berlese funnels. All individuals were recorded and identified where possible to species level for analysis in the Simpson’s D and Shannon–Wiener H’ diversity indices. Evenness was measured using Simpson’s E’, after which dominant species were analyzed in a multivariate ordination analysis. Results showed Bt-corn had no negative effects on any of the organisms analyzed. There was a significant year effect on the abundance of surface-dwelling Collembola and on species diversity of soil-dwelling Collembola. Our findings suggest that crop management practices and/or environmental conditions (e.g., heavy rainfall during the 2004 growing season) had the greatest impact on species diversity and evenness, rather than the crop itself (Bt or isoline).     

Genetic diversity and population differentiation of traditional fonio millet (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Digitaria </Emphasis>spp.) landraces from different agro-ecological zones of West Africa

Fonio millets (Digitaria exilis Stapf, D. iburua Stapf) are valuable indigenous staple food crops in West Africa. In order to investigate the genetic diversity and population differentiation in these millets, a total of 122 accessions from five countries (Benin, Burkina Faso, Guinea, Mali and Togo) were analysed by Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphisms (AFLPs). Genetic distance-based UPGMA clustering and principal coordinate analysis revealed a clear-cut differentiation between the two species and a clustering of D. exilis accessions in three major genetic groups fitting to their geographical origins. Shannon’s diversity index detected in D. iburua was low (H = 0.02). In D. exilis, the most widespread cultivated species, moderate levels of genetic diversity (Shannon’s diversity H = 0.267; Nei’s gene diversity H′ = 0.355) were detected. This genetic diversity is unequally distributed with the essential part observed in the Upper Niger River basin while a very low diversity is present in the Atacora mountain zone. Analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) revealed that a large part of the genetic variation resides among the genetic groups (70%) and the country of origin (56%), indicating a clear genetic differentiation within D. exilis. Influence of mating system (inbreeding or apomixis), agricultural selection and ecological adaptations as well as founding effects in the genetic make-up of the landraces were visible and seemed to jointly contribute to the genetic structure detected in this species. The genetic variability found between the analysed accessions was weakly correlated with their phenotypic attributes. However, the genetic groups identified differed significantly in their mean performance for some agro-morphologic traits. The results obtained are relevant for fonio millets breeding, conservation and management of their genetic resources in West Africa.     

Transition zones in small lakes: the importance of dilution and biological uptake on lake-wide heterogeneity

Community structure and diversity patterns of pelagic copepods were investigated for the coastal areas and in the marine lakes of the Palau islands in the West Pacific. We conducted field surveys during 2004–2007 and collected zooplankton samples from eight coastal areas and 16 marine lakes. The marine lakes in the islands of Palau are limnologically classified into two types, meromictic and holomictic lakes. Species diversity indices (Margalef’s species richness d′, Shannon–Wiener index H′, and Simpson’s dominance) were measured at each sampling site. The copepod community structure was analyzed using multivariate analyses, hierarchical cluster analysis, and non-metric multidimensional scaling (MDS) from the PRIMER package. A total of 36 copepod taxa were identified to the genus or species level from Calanoida, Cyclopoida, Harpacticoida, and Poecilostomatoida. Multivariate analysis based on the Bray–Curtis similarity index revealed that copepod assemblages could be classified into three different groups according to their habitat: (I) meromictic lakes, (II) holomictic lakes with an exceptionally shallow and flat basin (type A holomictic lakes), (III) holomictic lakes with a deep basin (type B holomictic lakes), and all coastal areas. The meromictic lakes were characterized by markedly decreased species diversity (d′ = 0.15, H′ = 0.41) in which only two brackish-water species, Bestiolina similis and Oithona dissimilis, were dominant. Type A holomictic lakes were characterized by relatively low levels of species diversity (d′ = 1.25, H′ = 1.35). In contrast, type B holomictic lakes were characterized by relatively high levels of species diversity, which was comparable to that of coastal areas. This result indicated that zooplankton assemblages in the type B holomictic lakes were closely related to a coastal community. The present study showed that the species diversity of pelagic copepods varies according to the level of isolation and the local environmental conditions for each marine lake.     

Clonal diversity of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Clintonia udensis</Emphasis> Trautv. <Emphasis Type="Italic">et</Emphasis> Mey. populations and its correlation with ecological factors

The clonal diversity of Clintonia udensis Trautv. et Mey. was detected by ISSR markers among 16 populations, and its correlation with ecological factors was analyzed as well in this work. Results showed that individuals (clonal ramets) per genotype were 1.12 and 1.149 at population and species levels, respectively, and that the 16 populations were all multiclonal. The detected genotypes were localized, without exception, within populations but demonstrated relatively high clonal differentiation among populations. The clonal diversity of the studied populations was high, with the average Simpson’s index of 0.975, while the genets showed a clonal architecture of “guerilla”. The population genetic diversities revealed by genet were consistent with those by ramet, further confirming their genetic differentiation among populations. And its genotype diversity within populations probably resulted largely from the frequent seedling regeneration and self-compatibility. In addition, the correlation analysis further revealed that, among the ecological factors, Simpson’s index of C. udensis had a significant positive correlation (P<0.05) with pH values in the soil but not others.     

RAPD analysis of genetic diversity and population genetic structure of Stipa krylovii reshov. in Inner Mongolia steppe

Random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) analysis was used to characterize the genetic diversity and population genetic structure of Stipa krylovii populations in Inner Mongolia steppe of North China. Thirteen 10-bp oligonucleotide primers, which generated 237 RAPD bands, were used to analyze 90 plants of five populations from three regions, meadow steppe, typical steppe and desert steppe, from the east to the west. The genetic diversity of Stipa krylovii that was revealed by observed number of alleles (na), expected number of alleles (ne), Nei’s diversity index (h), Shannon’s diversity index (H), amplificated loci, polymorphic loci and the percentage of polymorphic loci (PPB) increased from the east to the west. The Pearson’s correlation analysis between genetic diversity parameters and ecological parameters indicated that the genetic diversity of Stipa krylovii was associated with precipitation and cumulative temperature variations along the longitude (humidity were calculated by precipitation and cumulative temperature). Dendrogram based on Jaccard’s genetic distance showed that the individuals from the same population formed a single subgroup. Although most variation (56.85%) was within populations, there was high genetic differentiation among populations of Stipa krylovii, high differentiation within and between regions by AMOVA analysis. Either Nei’s unbiased genetic distance (G _ST) or gene flow (Nm) among pairwise populations was not correlated with geographical distance by Mantel’s test (P > 0.05), suggesting that there was no consistency with the isolation by distance model in these populations. Natural selection may have played a role in affecting the genetic diversity and population structure, but habitat destruction and degradation in northem grassland in China may be the main factor responsible for high genetic differentiation among populations, within and among regions. The text was submitted by the authors in English.     

Computing parametric beta diversity with unequal plot weights: a solution based on resampling methods

Jost (Ecology, 88:2427–2439, 2007) recently showed that the Shannon diversity is the only standard diversity measure that can be partitioned into meaningful independent alpha and beta components when plot weights are unequal. This conclusion is very disappointing if one wants to calculate the beta diversity of unequal weighted plots using a parametric measure with varying sensitivities to the occurrence of rare and abundant species. To overcome this impasse, at least partially, in this paper, I propose a parametric measure of beta diversity that is based on the combination of Shannon’s entropy with Hurlbert’s ‘expected species diversity’. Unlike most parametric measures of diversity, the proposed index has a clear probabilistic interpretation, allowing at the same time a multiplicative partition of diversity into independent alpha and beta components for unequally weighted plots.     

Trap color and placement affects estimates of insect family-level abundance and diversity in a Nebraska salt marsh

Sampling programs to establish baseline ecosystem information (e.g., species abundance and diversity) often fail to consider the potential influence of sampling techniques on results. Research on sampling economically important insects has demonstrated the possible influences of trap color and trap placement on results, but few data have been collected from natural environments. Consequently, we examined the effects of color (yellow and blue) and placement (exposed and shaded by plants) of sticky traps on insect captures and diversity estimates from a Nebraska inland salt marsh community. We identified 1913 specimens from 67 insect families collected during five trapping dates in July 1996. More Cicindelidae were collected on exposed traps, and more Staphylinidae, Dolichopodidae, Cicadellidae, and Thripidae were collected on shaded traps. More Dolichopodidae were collected on yellow traps, while more Syrphidae and Thripidae were collected on blue. Shannon and alpha diversity measures were significantly higher for shaded traps than exposed traps, but were not affected by trap color. Our results highlight the importance of characterizing sampling techniques when establishing diversity estimates. These data provide the first complete accounting of community-level insect response to colored sticky traps and provide new information for color preference of non-economic insect species.     

Genetic variability and differentiation of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Caragana microphylla</Emphasis> populations as revealed by RAPD markers

Genetic variability in random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) was studied in 90 individuals of Caragana microphylla, an outcrossing perennial shrub species, from five natural populations sampled in Inner Mongolia steppe of China on a small scale. Nineteen selected primers were used to amplify DNA samples, and totally 225 bands were detected. The percentage of polymorphic bands within populations ranged form 58.22% to 63.56%, with an average of 60% at the population level and 71.11% at the species level, indicating relatively high genetic variations in C. microphylla species. Shannon’s information index (l) and Nei’s gene diversity (h) showed the similar trend with each other. According to the analysis of Nei’s gene diversity, the percentage of genetic variation among populations was 7.13%, indicating a low level of genetic differentiation among populations. There existed a strong gene flow (N _m = 3.26) among populations. Although AMOVA analysis also revealed most variation was within populations (Φ_ST = 4.1%), a significant proportion was observed among populations (P < 0.001) in the present study, suggesting genetic differentiation occurred among populations at a certain extent. Based on Mantel’s tests and the results of previous studies, the genetic structure pattern of C. microphylla accorded with the isolation-by-distance model on a very large scale, however, on a small scale, the significant genetic differentiation among populations might be enhanced by the micro-environmental divergence among the sampling sites, rather than by geographic factors. Analysis of the genetic variations of C. microphylla populations provided useful information for the adaptive strategy of Caragana species.     

The diversity of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in the subtropical forest of Huangshan (Yellow Mountain), East-Central China

The world heritage of Huangshan is located in the east-central China. In order to obtain a better overview of biodiversity in Huangshan, we investigated the diversity of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in the soil of Huangshan. Forty-two rhizosphere soil samples were collected and 989 arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal spore samples were obtained using the wet-sieving method. Twenty-five species of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi were identified from the collections. The species were of the genera Acaulospora (6 species), Entrophospora (1 species), Glomus (16 species) and Scutellospora (2 species). Acaulospora and Glomus were dominant at the study site. The arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi spore density ranged from 45 to 3,250 per 100 g soil (average 839), and the species richness of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi ranged from 1 to 9 (average 4.2) per soil sample. Shannon–Wiener index and Simpson’s index were calculated to evaluate the arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal diversity. The diversity of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal community in the subtropical forest of Huangshan may be the result of mutual selection between arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and the ecological environment.     

Amounts and patterns of nucleotide variation within and between two Japanese conifers, sugi (Cryptomeria japonica) and hinoki (Chamaecyparis obtusa) (Cupressaceae sensu lato)

Sugi (Cryptomeria japonica) and hinoki (Chamaecyparis obtusa) are the most important timber species in Japan. To quantify and compare the level of nucleotide variation in these species, we investigated their variation at ten nuclear loci. Average values of nucleotide diversity at synonymous sites (π _SYN) found in sugi and hinoki were 0.0038 and 0.0069, respectively. However, although the average value of nucleotide diversity was higher in hinoki than in sugi, their average values of haplotype diversity were similar. Deviations from the standard neutral model were detected at two loci in hinoki using Tajima’s D, Fay and Wu’s H, and Strobeck’s S statistics, which seem to be due to its historical population structure. Levels of divergence between the two species at synonymous sites of the ten genes ranged from 0.121 to 0.566 (0.28 on average). These values positively correlated with their guanine + cytosine contents at third-codon positions of synonymous sites (%GC3s).     

Genetic diversity assessment of sub-samples of cacao, Theobroma cacao L. collections in West Africa using simple sequence repeats marker

Knowledge of genebank and on-farm genetic diversity, particularly in an introduced crop species, is crucial to the management and utilization of the genetic resources available. Microsatellite markers were used to determine genetic diversity in 574 accessions of cacao, Theobroma cacao L., representing eight groups covering parental populations in West Africa, genebank, and farmers’ populations in Nigeria. From the 12 microsatellite markers used, a total of 144 alleles were detected with a mean allelic richness of 4.39 alleles/locus. The largest genetic diversity was found in the Upper Amazon parent population (H _nb  = 0.730), followed by the 1944 Posnette’s Introduction (H _nb  = 0.704), and was lowest in the Local parent population (H _nb  = 0.471). Gene diversity was appreciably high in the farmers’ populations (H _nb  = 0.563–0.624); however, the effective number of alleles was lower than that found in the genebank’s Posnette’s population. Fixation index estimates indicated deficiency of heterozygotes in the Upper Amazon and the Local parent populations (F _is  = 0.209 and 0.160, respectively), and excess of heterozygotes in the Trinitario parent population (F _is  = −0.341). The presence of inbreeding in the Local parent populations and substructure (Wahlund effect) in the Upper Amazon were suggested for the deficiency of heterozygotes observed. Non-significant genetic differentiation observed between the genebank’s and farmers’ populations indicated significant impact of national breeding programs on varieties grown in farmers’ plantations. From this study, we showed that appreciable genetic diversity was present in on-farm and field genebank collections of cacao that can be exploited for crop improvement in West Africa. Suggestions for future conservation of on-farm genetic diversity and local landraces are further discussed.     

A comparative study of Odonata (Insecta) assemblages along an altitudinal gradient in the sierra de Coalcomán Mountains, Michoacán, Mexico

Odonate diversity in the Coalcomán Mountain Range (CMR), Michoacán State, Mexico, was surveyed, and samplings were made during 2 years in eight streams along an altitudinal gradient. Presence–absence data were analyzed using non-parametric and parametric methods. Beta and gamma diversities were estimated using Whittaker’s and Lande’s formulae, respectively. A total of 2,526 adults and 489 larvae were captured, yielding 116 species (γ diversity), 44 genera and 9 families. Five new species were discovered. The genus Argia was the most important contributor to Zygoptera diversity and total richness (γ diversity), yielding 40.4 and 14.7%, respectively. The non-parametric estimator Chao2 provided the closest theoretical estimate of species richness, and Clench’s model fit the data well (R ² ranged from 99.44 to 99.99) to explain a high proportion of the variance (98.8). We conclude that beta diversity is important at the landscape scale, supporting the hypothesis that Mexico is a beta diverse country. Our results triple the number of known species of Odonata for Michoacán. Given the considerable richness of odonates at local and landscape scales, our results support the proposal of the Coalcomán Mountain Range as a priority area for conservation and related research.     

Minor pollinator–prey conflict in the carnivorous plant, Drosera anglica

We studied the physical and temporal isolation of two arthropod guilds interacting with Drosera anglica Huds., a terrestrial carnivorous plant. Flowers are separated from basal trap leaves by a leafless stalk. Since arthropods are potentially employed both as prey and pollinators, we asked whether separation of traps from flowers reduces the frequency with which flower visitors are captured by the leaves. Plants captured prey throughout the season, with peak trapping activity occurring before flowering began. The diverse prey spectrum included at least 109 species in 94 genera in 26 of 37 identified families representing 11 arthropod orders. The most common prey were adult flies of Nematocera, particularly Ceratopogonidae (50%) and Chironomidae (42%). The following taxa were periodically abundant: Acarina, Diptera–Cecidomyiidae, Chloropidae, Sciaridae, Hemiptera nymphs and Thysanoptera–Thripidae. Flies (Diptera) were chief flower visitors (95%), dominated by Syrphidae (66%), Bombyliidae and Muscidae (10% each), Calliphoridae (7%), Tachinidae and Dolichopodidae (3% each). Additionally, visitors were a bee (Hymenoptera–Halictidae) and thrips (Thysanoptera–Thripidae). Four families were common to both guilds: Diptera–Dolichopodidae, Muscidae, Tachinidae; and Thysanoptera–Thripidae. However, direct comparisons of identified taxa within these families showed that overlap between flower visitors and prey occurred for Thrips sp. larvae alone, which comprised only 3% of all flower visitors and 0.5% of prey. Drosera anglica exploits distinct guilds of insects for pollinators and prey.     

Microalgae biodiversity and biomass status in Qua Iboe Estuary mangrove swamp,Nigeria

Microalgae composition, abundance, diversity and biomass of the Qua Iboe Estuary mangrove swamp were studied. The results revealed the rich assemblage of the brackish ecosystem. Six major taxanomic classes were encountered. These were the Bacillariophyceae, Cyanophyceae, Chlorophyceae, Chrysophyceae, Euglenophyceae and Phaeophyceae. Their composition, abundance and diversity exhibits strong seasonal variation. Variations between pelagic and sedimentary habitats were also noticed. The diatoms (Bacillariophyceae) dominated the habitats. Actinoptychus undalatus, Navicula radiosa and Amphora ovalis co-dominated the pelagic water column; while the epipellic (intertidal) and benthic (subtidal) sediments were co-dominated by A. ovalis and Actinoptychus undulatus. Analyses of the Shannon’s index of general diversity (H¹), McArthur-Terborgh species equitability index (E) and Simpson’s index of dominance (D) of the microalgae communities revealed that A. ovalis with a mean H ¹ -value of 0.25, E-value of 0.08 and D-value of 0.05 was the most prevalent genus in the mangrove ecosystem despite its uneven distribution. The densities of the microalgae communities corresponded with their biomass statuses and were seriously impacted by oil spillage. This forms the basis of concern because the estuary is associated with a high probability of major oil pollution with serious consequences for ecological stability and fisheries.     

Genetic diversity among geographically separated populations of Nepenthes mirabilis

The distribution of Nepenthes mirabilis ranges from Northeast (NE) to South (S) Thailand. Eleven individuals from NE, S and Suen Jatujak market in Bangkok, Central (C) Thailand, were collected and divided into four populations according to their geographical areas. These four populations were analyzed to determine a genetic diversity profile using thirteen inter-simple sequence repeat markers. The individuals produced 75.18% polymorphic banding profiles. The Shannon’s index was used to estimate genetic diversity. Total genetic diversity (H _T) and inter-population genetic diversity (H _S) were 0.854 and 0.678, respectively. The degree of genetic differentiation (G _ST) of the species populations is 0.206, whereas the gene flow (Nm) among all the various geographical area populations is 1.016. Both the dendrogram and the results of the Shannon’s diversity index suggest great genetic diversity. These results support the broad range of distribution sites of Nepenthes mirabilis, which would require high genetic diversity to adapt to the environmental variations that can be found between NE, C, and S Thailand. ANOVA shows that the genetic diversity in each population is not significantly different (P > 0.05). Mantel tests reveal that geographical distance is an important factor for affecting the genetic distances among populations.     

Genetic Relationship of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Curcuma</Emphasis> Species from Northeast India Using PCR-Based Markers

Molecular genetic fingerprints of nine Curcuma species from Northeast India were developed using PCR-based markers. The aim involves elucidating there intra- and inter-specific genetic diversity important for utilization, management, and conservation. Twelve random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD), 19 Inter simple sequence repeats (ISSRs), and four amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) primers produced 266 polymorphic fragments. ISSR confirmed maximum polymorphism of 98.55% whereas RAPD and AFLP showed 93.22 and 97.27%, respectively. Marker index and polymorphic information content varied in the range of 8.64–48.1, 19.75–48.14, and 25–28 and 0.17–0.48, 0.19–0.48, and 0.25–0.29 for RAPD, ISSR, and AFLP markers, respectively. The average value of number of observed alleles, number of effective alleles, mean Nei’s gene diversity, and Shannon’s information index were 1.93–1.98, 1.37–1.62, 0.23–0.36, and 0.38–0.50, respectively, for three DNA markers used. Dendrograms based on three molecular data using unweighted pair group method with arithmetic mean (UPGMA) was congruent and classified the Curcuma species into two major clusters. Cophenetic correlation coefficient between dendrogram and original similarity matrix were significant for RAPD (r = 0.96), ISSR (r = 0.94), and AFLP (r = 0.97). Clustering was further supported by principle coordinate analysis. High genetic polymorphism documented is significant for conservation and further improvement of Curcuma species.     

Assaying polymorphism at DNA level for genetic diversity diagnostics of the safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.) world germplasm resources

Carthamus tinctorius (2n = 2x = 24), commonly known as safflower, is widely cultivated in agricultural production systems of Asia, Europe, Australia, and the Americas as a source of high quality vegetable and industrial oil. Twenty-two RAPD primers, 18 SSR primers, and 10 AFLP primer combinations were used to assess: (1) the genetic diversity of 85 accessions (originating from 24 countries) representing global germplasm variability of safflower and (2) the interrelationships among safflower ‘centers of similarity’ or ‘regional gene pools’ proposed earlier. The RAPD and SSR primers and AFLP primer combinations revealed 57.6, 68.0, and 71.2% polymorphism, respectively, among 111, 72, and 330 genetic loci amplified from the accessions. The sum of effective number of alleles (66.44), resolving power (59.16), and marker index (51.3) explicitly revealed the relative superiority of AFLP as a marker system in uncovering variation in safflower. Overall, AFLP markers could recognize ‘centers of similarity’ or ‘regional gene pools’. Analysis of molecular variance and Shannon’s information index provided corroborating evidences for the present and previous studies that concluded fragmentation of safflower gene pool into many gene pools. Divergent directional selection is likely to have played an important role in shaping the diversity. From the practical applications standpoint, the diversity of Iran–Afghanistan gene pool is very high, equivalent to the total diversity of the species. The Far East gene pool is the least diverse. The present comprehensive input, first of its own kind in safflower, will assist marker based improvement programmes in the crop.