Tetrasomic segregation for multiple alleles in alfalfa

Evidence of tetrasomic inheritance in alfalfa, Medicago sativa L. and M. falcata L., for multiple codominant alleles at three isozymic loci is reported in this study. The locus Prx-1 governing anodal peroxidase and the loci Lap-1 and Lap-2 governing anodal leucine-aminopeptidase were studied by starch gel electrophoresis in seedling root tissue or seeds. The progenies from several di-, tri- or tetra-allelic plants belong to the species M. sativa and M. falcata and their hybrids were studied for the segregation of the three genes. In all cases, tetrasomic inheritance of chromosomal-type segregation was observed. In another progeny resulting from the crossing of two plants involving four different alleles at locus Lap-2, tetrasomic segregation with the possible occurrence of double reduction was observed. This study presents direct evidence of autotetraploidy and the existence of tetra-allelic loci in alfalfa. It also supports the concept that the species M. sativa and M. falcata are genetically close enough to be considered biotypes of a common species.     

An RFLP linkage map for loblolly pine based on a three-generation outbred pedigree

A genetic linkage map for loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.) was constructed using segregation data from a three-generation outbred pedigree consisting of four grandparents, two parents, and 95 F₂ progeny. The map was based predominantly on restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) loci detected by cDNA probes. Sixty-five cDNA and three genomic DNA probes revealed 90 RFLP loci. Six polymorphic isozyme loci were also scored. One-fourth (24%) of the cDNA probes detected more than 1 segregating locus, an indication that multigene families are common in pines. As many as six alleles were observed at a single segregating locus among grandparents and it was not unusual for the progeny to segregate for three or four alleles per locus. Multipoint linkage analysis placed 73 RFLP and 2 isozyme loci into 20 linkage groups; the remaining 17 RFLP and 4 isozyme loci were unlinked. The mapped RFLP probes provide a new set of codominant markers for genetic analyses in loblolly pine.     

Study of Genetic Diversity of Earthworm <Emphasis Type="Italic">Lumbricus rubellus</Emphasis> Hoff. (Oligochaeta,Lumbricidae)

A polymorphism of the total protein (MY) and nonspecific esterase (EST) patterns was revealed in the musculocutaneous sac of earthworm Lumbricus rubellus by polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. The revealed polymorphism is attributed to genetically determined codominant systems, each of which is controlled by the corresponding locus, My and Est, represented by two and four alleles, respectively. The allelic frequency distribution of both loci demonstrated genetic heterogeneity of four L. rubellus samples from Moscow and Moscow Region (311 individuals in total). Allelic frequencies of the revealed loci are proposed as genetic markers for monitoring L. rubellus generations in vermiculture.     

Genetic studies on free-ranging macaques of Cay Santiago. II. 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase and NADH-methemoglobin reductase (NADH-diaphorase).

For the population of 395 semi-free-ranging rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) that inhabited Cayo Santiago in 1976, 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase phenotypes of 378 animals were determined. Three phenotypes, controlled by two autosomal codominant alleles,PGD^A andPGD^B, were found by electrophoretic methods. The frequencies of the alleles are 0.898 and 0.102, respectively. The population, composed of five troops and peripheral males, is in Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium at this locus. The allele frequencies at the 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase locus in the population in 1976 were compared with frequencies in 1973; a statistically significant difference was found in one troop. The phenotypes of NADH-methemoglobin reductase (NADH-diaphorase) were determined electrophoretically for 372 animals. These phenotypes are probably the products of two autosomal codominant alleles,Dia¹ andDia², with frequencies of 0.786 and 0.214, respectively. The population is in equilibrium at this locus also. Tests of homogeneity at the dehydrogenase and reductase loci indicate that the allele frequencies are significantly different among the five troops in the population. Observed and expected phenotypic ratios in progeny were compared at the dehydrogenase and the reductase loci. The only significant deviation from expectation occurs among offspring of mothers heterozygous at the reductase locus. The observed distributions of alleles at the 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase locus and the NADH-methemoglobin reductase locus are probably the results of stochastic processes.     

Genetics of four plasma protein loci in Equus przewalskii: new alleles at the prealbumin, postalbumin and transferrin loci

This paper reports genetic variation at the prealbumin (Pr), postalbumin (Pa) and transferrin (Tf) loci in Equus przewalskii found using thin layer isoelectric focusing and an amphoteric separator. The method resolves all three loci plus serum esterase (Es) on a single gel, and typing of all four loci is readily achieved. In addition to the esterase alleles previously reported by Fisher & Scott (1979), five alleles were found at the Pr locus, three at the Pa locus and six at the Tf locus. Analysis of several mating types confirms inheritance is autosomal and codominant for all four loci.     

Genetics of four plasma protein loci in Equus przewalskii: new alleles at the prealbumin, postalbumin and transferrin loci

This paper reports genetic variation at the prealbumin ( Pr ), postalbumin ( Pa ) and transferrin ( Tf ) loci in Equus przewalskii found using thin layer isoelectric focusing and an amphoteric separator. The method resolves all three loci plus serum esterase ( Es ) on a single gel, and typing of all four loci is readily achieved. In addition to the esterase alleles previously reported by Fisher & Scott (1979), five alleles were found at the Pr locus. three at the Pa locus and six at the Tf locus. Analysis of several mating types confirms inheritance is autosomal and codominant for all four loci.     

Protein variation in diploid and tetraploid orchard grass (Dactylis glomerata L.): Formal genetics and population polymorphism of peroxidases and malate dehydrogenases

The genetics of one malate dehydrogenase locus and two peroxidase loci were studied in leaves of diploid and more particularly tetraploid Dactylis glomerata L. by means of starch gel electrophoresis. Seven, two and four codominant alleles at the PX1, PX2 and MDH1 loci respectively are described. Malate dehydrogenases showed dimeric structure and peroxidases behaved as monomers but with several molecular structures in the case of PX1. No linkage was found between PX1 and MDH1 nor between PX1 or MDH1 and other loci studied previously.The polymorphism of the PX1 and MDH1 loci was investigated in four natural populations. Allelic frequencies and phenotypic distributions revealed a great difference in allelic diversity and in the level of heterozygotes between Eurasian and Mediterranean populations for PX1. Numerous alleles with very low frequencies were found at the MDH1 locus in all tetraploid populations.     

Genetic control of glutamate oxaloacetate transaminase isozymes in the diploid plant Stephanomeria exigua and its allotetraploid derivative

The multiple forms of glutamate oxaloacetate transaminase in the annual diploid plant Stephanomeria exigua (Compositae) are controlled by three unlinked gene loci with two, four, and five alleles, respectively. All alleles are codominant, and heterozygotes for any pair of them produce a more darkly staining enzyme with intermediate mobility, suggesting that the enzymes have a dimeric subunit structure. In natural populations, the same allele is predominant or fixed at each locus. Stephanomeria elata, the allotetraploid derivative of S. exigua and the closely related S. virgata, produces multiple enzyme variants coded by one pair of its duplicated loci which are identical in electrophoretic mobility to those of diploid individuals heterozygous at this locus. The formation of multiple enzyme variants in all individuals of the tetraploid may provide a degree of biochemical versatility that contributes to its ability to colonize disturbed habitats.This research was supported by National Science Foundation Grant GB 29484X.     

High variability and disomic segregation of microsatellites in the octoploid Fragaria virginiana Mill. (Rosaceae)

The objectives of the present study were to develop microsatellite markers for the wild strawberry, Fragaria virginiana, to evaluate segregation patterns of microsatellite alleles in this octoploid species, and assess genetic variability at microsatellite loci in a wild population. A genomic library was screened for microsatellite repeats and several PCR primers were designed and tested. We also tested the use of heterologous primers and found that F. virginiana primers amplified products in cultivated strawberry, Fragaria × ananassa Duch. and Fragaria chiloensis. Similarly, microsatellite loci developed from cultivated strawberry also successfully amplified F. virginiana loci. We investigated four microsatellite loci in detail, three developed from F. virginiana and one from cultivated strawberry. A survey of 100 individuals from a population of F. virginiana in Pennsylvania demonstrated high heterozygosities (H_e or gene diversity ranged from 0.80 to 0.88 per locus) and allelic diversity (12–17 alleles per locus), but individual plants had no more than two alleles per locus. Segregation patterns in parents and progeny of two controlled crosses at these four loci were consistent with disomic Mendelian inheritance. Together these findings suggest that the genome of F. virginiana is "highly diploidized" and at least a subset of microsatellite loci can be treated as codominant, diploid markers. Significant heterozygote deficiencies were found at three of the four loci for hermaphroditic individuals but for only one locus among females in this gynodioecious species.Communicated by J. Dvorak     

Serum esterase genetics in rabbits. IV. The prealbumin and β-globulin systems

Discontinuous starch gel electrophoresis revealed a fourth allele of rabbit prealbumin serum esterase at locus Est-2. This allele is designated Est-2 ^f and appears to be silent. In addition to the prealbumin serum esterases, another serum esterase system was studied in rabbits. This system is localized in the β-globulin region. Genetic analysis indicated that one locus with two codominant alleles controls the variation in this region. Linkage of this system with Est-1 and Est-2 of the prealbumin serum esterases was demonstrated. Comparison of the arrangement of these esterase loci on linkage group VI with the esterase loci on chromosome 8 of the mouse gives additional support for the theory of evolutionary conservation of chromosomal segments coding for mammalian esterases.     

Genetic variants found in plasma alpha-amylase and erythrocyte carbonic anhydrase in the musk shrew (Suncus murinus)

Genetic variants of plasma alpha-amylase and erythrocyte carbonic anhydrase in the musk shrew (Suncus murinus) were found by electrophoreses using cellulose acetate plates. It was demonstrated that phenotypic differences of alpha-amylase are controlled by two codominant alleles (Amy-1a and Amy-1b) at a single autosomal locus (Amy-1). The segregation data of the carbonic anhydrase phenotypes in the progeny supported the genetic theory of two codominant alleles (Car-1a and Car-1b) at a single autosomal locus (Car-1). The data suggested that there was no close linkage between the two loci, Amy-1 and Car-1. The Car-1 locus was fixed with one of the two alleles in each of the four lines, i.e. Nag, Oki , Tar and Jak originating from wild animals captured in Nagasaki and Naha and Tarama Island, Okinawa, Japan, and in Jakarta, Indonesia, respectively. Oki and Tar lines still showed segregation of the two alleles at the Amy-1 locus.     

Isolation and characterization of microsatellite loci from the Australasian sea snake,Aipysurus laevis

We developed 13 microsatellite loci for the olive sea snake, Aipysurus laevis, using both enriched and unenriched genomic DNA libraries. Eleven codominant loci, that reliably amplified, were used to screen 32 individuals across the geographic range of A. laevis. Four loci had four or more alleles (maximum 12), whereas the other seven had either two or three. All but one locus was in Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium. These loci will provide useful markers to investigate population genetic structure for the olive sea snake.     

Glutamate oxaloacetate transaminase (got) genetics in the mouse: polymorphism of got-1

We have examined a polymorphism for the soluble glutamate oxaloacetate (GOT-1) isozyme system which was found in the Asian mouse Mus castaneus. Variants of GOT-1 segregate as though they are controlled by codominant alleles for a single autosomal locus which we have designated Got-1. No close linkage of genes for soluble and mitochondrial forms of the enzyme, GOT-1 and GOT-2 respectively, was observed. Furthermore, no close linkage of Got-1 and the loci c, Gpi-1, Mod-2, Mod-1, Ld-1, Gpd-1, Pgm-1 or Gpo-1 was observed. Our results demonstrate the utility of sampling Mus from diverse populations to extend the repertoire of polymorphic loci and the genetic linkage map.     

Estimation of mating system parameters in plant populations using marker loci with null alleles

Summary An Expectation-Maximization (EM)-algorithm procedure is presented that extends Cheliak et al. (1983) method of maximum-likelihood estimation of mating system parameters of mixed mating system models. The extension permits the estimation of the rate of self-fertilization (s) and allele frequencies (Pi) at loci in outcrossing pollen, at marker loci having recessive null alleles. The algorithm makes use of maternal and filial genotypic arrays obtained by the electrophoretic analysis of cohorts of progeny. The genotypes of maternal plants must be known. Explicit equations are given for cases when the genotype of the maternal gamete inherited by a seed can (gymnosperms) or cannot (angiosperms) be determined. The procedure can accommodate any number of codominant alleles, but only one recessive null allele at each locus. An example, using actual data from Pinus banksiana, is presented to illustrate the application of this EM algorithm to the estimation of mating system parameters using marker loci having both codominant and recessive alleles.Issued as AECL-8745     

Effect of balancing selection on spatial genetic structure within populations: theoretical investigations on the self-incompatibility locus and empirical studies in Arabidopsis halleri

The effect of selection on patterns of genetic structure within and between populations may be studied by contrasting observed patterns at the genes targeted by selection with those of unlinked neutral marker loci. Local directional selection on target genes will produce stronger population genetic structure than at neutral loci, whereas the reverse is expected for balancing selection. However, theoretical predictions on the intensity of this signal under precise models of balancing selection are still lacking. Using negative frequency-dependent selection acting on self-incompatibility systems in plants as a model of balancing selection, we investigated the effect of such selection on patterns of spatial genetic structure within a continuous population. Using numerical simulations, we tested the effect of the type of self-incompatibility system, the number of alleles at the self-incompatibility locus and the dominance interactions among them, the extent of gene dispersal, and the immigration rate on spatial genetic structure at the selected locus and at unlinked neutral loci. We confirm that frequency-dependent selection is expected to reduce the extent of spatial genetic structure as compared to neutral loci, particularly in situations with low number of alleles at the self-incompatibility locus, high frequency of codominant interactions among alleles, restricted gene dispersal and restricted immigration from outside populations. Hence the signature of selection on spatial genetic structure is expected to vary across species and populations, and we show that empirical data from the literature as well as data reported here on three natural populations of the herb Arabidopsis halleri confirm these theoretical results.     

Isolation and characterization of 15 polymorphic microsatellite markers for the devastating dry rot fungus,Serpula lacrymans

Fifteen polymorphic microsatellite markers were developed from microsatellite‐enriched DNA libraries of the devastating dry rot fungus, Serpula lacrymans. The loci exhibited two to four alleles per locus and the expected heterozygosity ranged from 0.13 to 0.47. The codominant markers, described here for this fungus, will permit further studies in population genetics and phylogeography of this economically highly important species.     

The genetics of the sixth and seventh components of complement in the dog: Polymorphism,linkage, locus duplication,and silent alleles

The complement components C6 and C7 exhibit genetic polymorphism in the domestic dog. In the case of C6, there is a single locus with a null allele and two structural alleles; in the case of C7, there are two linked loci, each with three structural alleles. There is a null allele or locus deletion at one of these loci. In all cases, inheritance is autosomal and codominant. The C7 loci are closely linked to each other and to C6. This complex is not close to the dog major histocompatibility complex (MHC) locus.     

Current state of the genetic polymorphism in spring barley (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Hordeum vulgare</Emphasis> L.) from Russia assessed by the alleles of hordein-coding loci

Starch gel electrophoresis was performed to study the polymorphism of hordeins encoded by the Hrd A, Hrd B, and Hrd F loci in 211 varieties of spring barley. For 41 of these varieties, the genetic formulas were established for the first time. In the two samples of varieties, the comparative analysis of allelic diversity and allele frequencies of hordein-coding loci was carried out. The first sample consisted of 101 spring barley varieties approved for the use on the territory of the Russian Federation in 1999, while the second sample included 160 spring barley varieties that were approved in 2014; 49 of these varieties were common for both samples. It is demonstrated that the current tendency to reduction of the proportion of heterogeneous spring barley varieties is mainly due to the introduction of foreign varieties homogeneous for the hordein-coding loci. At the same time, there is an increase in polymorphism of hordein-coding loci in modern spring barley varieties. The number of alleles for the Hrd A locus increased by five alleles, and for the Hrd B locus, by nine alleles. Along with the alleles recorded earlier in barley landrace populations and varieties bred in 20th century, three novel alleles of the Hrd A locus and four alleles of the Hrd B locus were identified. The number of alleles of the Hrd F locus remained unchanged (four), and the changes in their frequencies were small. At the same time, the changes in frequency observed for some alleles of the Hrd A and Hrd B loci were statistically significant. All newly identified alleles of hordein-coding loci were found with low frequencies (from 0.003 to 0.006), so despite the increased number of alleles, no statistically significant increase in genetic diversity in terms of μ and PIC indices was observed.     

Alleles at storage protein loci in Triticum spelta L. accessions and their occurrence in related wheats

The diversity at eight storage protein loci was analyzed in the collection of Triticum spelta accesssions from the National Center for Plant Genetic Resources of Ukraine (most of accessions were European spelts). Seven alleles at the Gli-B1 locus; five alleles at the Gli-A1 and Glu-B1 loci; three alleles at the Glu-B1 locus; and two alleles at the Gli-D1, Gli-B5, Glu-A1, and Glu-D1 loci were identified. Most alleles are found among common wheat cultivars; only five spelt-specific alleles were detected. The high frequency of the GliB1hs* and h alleles encoding the 45-type γ-gliadin among European spelt and durum wheat, as well as the occurrence of these alleles in T. dicoccum (particularly, in emmer accessions from Switzerland and Germany), are evidence in favor of von Büren’s hypothesis that the European spelt arose from the hybridization between tetraploid wheat with the 45-type γ-gliadin and hexaploid wheat. The analysis of genetic distances based on the genotypes at eight storage protein loci allowed differentiating the Asian spelt accession from European spelts.     

Development of SSR markers from an ectomycorrhizal fungus, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Suillus bovinus</Emphasis>

Nine simple sequence repeat (SSR) loci were isolated from an ectomycorrhizal fungus Suillus bovinus by dual-suppression PCR. Three of the SSR loci isolated were polymorphic. The number of alleles per locus was between two and seven, and expected heterozygosities ranged from 0.087 to 0.740. One of these was confirmed to be species specific and codominant, suggesting applicability for the analysis of belowground population structure and gene flow of S. bovinus.