控制发酵过程氧化还原电位优化酿酒酵母乙醇生产

利用氧化还原电极,研究了在厌氧条件下将氧化还原电位值(ORP)控制在不同水平(-50mV、-100mV、-150mV、-230mV)对乙醇发酵过程的影响。试验结果表明,不同的ORP值水平对乙醇得率,甘油形成、有机酸分泌、生物量和菌体死亡率的影响有明显的差异。当ORP为-50mV时的生物量是ORP为-100mV时的1.26倍、ORP为-150mV时的1.86倍、ORP为-230mV时的2.59倍,甘油浓度分别是后三者的1.2倍、1.1倍、1.7倍,而乙醇浓度却分别只有后三者的0.87倍、0.49倍、0.51倍。综合考虑生物量、乙醇浓度、甘油产量、残糖的测定结果,表明将ORP控制在-150mV时对乙醇发酵极为有利。说明可以用ORP电极来精确控制厌氧发酵条件,从而为酵母细胞合理分配代谢流以实现乙醇生产最优化的宏观控制提供了一种有效的手段。     

Correlations between reduction–oxidation potential profiles and growth patterns of Saccharomyces cerevisiae during very-high-gravity fermentation

When Saccharomyces cerevisiae was grown under three glucose concentrations (ca. 200, 250, and 300 g/l), controlled at three reduction–oxidation (redox) potentials (no control, −150 and −100 mV) by manipulating two aerations (0.82 and 1.3 vvm), we observed that the recorded redox potential profiles resembled bathtub curves, and the profiles correlated well to the growth patterns measured under the same conditions. According to the shape of bathtub curve, we subdivided the curve into four regions. Region I features an abrupt decline in redox potential (corresponding to the growth phase from lag and logarithmic to the onset of stationary phase) that correlates to rapid yeast propagation, resulting from fast glucose uptake. Region II (corresponding to the stationary phase in yeast growth, characterizes a constant level of redox potential) is maintained by proper sparging and constant agitation. The continual buildup of ethanol causes growth arrest of yeast, resulting in the reduction of net NADH production. As a result, an uprising of redox potential is the feature of Region III, which signifies the end of stationary phase followed by the commencement of death phase. The severity of growth environment due to ethanol toxicity results in a rapid decrease in yeast population. Region IV (corresponding to the death phase during yeast growth) characterizes a drastic reduction in yeast viability and a gradual leveling of redox potential. A low glucose feed correlates to a fast decline of redox potential, a small basin in the bathtub curve, short fermentation duration, and complete glucose utilization. Imposing the current redox potential settings to low glucose feeds exerts no appreciable effect on ethanol production. In contrast, a high glucose feed connects to a sluggish bathtub curve for all four regions and incomplete glucose utilization. Proximate analysis on carbon balance indicates that controlling redox potential at −150 mV and under ca. 250 and 300 g glucose/l conditions, gave the highest fermentation efficiency as compared to other conditions; but there were no beneficiary effect to control redox potential under ca. 200 g glucose/l conditions.     

Very high gravity ethanol fermentation by flocculating yeast under redox potential-controlled conditions

ABSTRACT: BACKGROUND: Very high gravity (VHG) fermentation using medium in excess of 250 g/L sugars for more than 15 % (v) ethanol can save energy consumption, not only for ethanol distillation, but also for distillage treatment; however, stuck fermentation with prolonged fermentation time and more sugars unfermented is the biggest challenge. Controlling redox potential (ORP) during VHG fermentation benefits biomass accumulation and improvement of yeast cell viability that is affected by osmotic pressure and ethanol inhibition, enhancing ethanol productivity and yield, the most important techno-economic aspect of fuel ethanol production. RESULTS: Batch fermentation was performed under different ORP conditions using the flocculating yeast and media containing glucose of 201 [PLUS-MINUS SIGN] 3.1, 252 [PLUS-MINUS SIGN] 2.9 and 298 [PLUS-MINUS SIGN] 3.8 g/L. Compared with ethanol fermentation by non-flocculating yeast, different ORP profiles were observed with the flocculating yeast due to the morphological change associated with the flocculation of yeast cells. When ORP was controlled at [MINUS SIGN]100 mV, ethanol fermentation with the high gravity (HG) media containing glucose of 201 [PLUS-MINUS SIGN] 3.1 and 252 [PLUS-MINUS SIGN] 2.9 g/L was completed at 32 and 56 h, respectively, producing 93.0 [PLUS-MINUS SIGN] 1.3 and 120.0 [PLUS-MINUS SIGN] 1.8 g/L ethanol, correspondingly. In contrast, there were 24.0 [PLUS-MINUS SIGN] 0.4 and 17.0 [PLUS-MINUS SIGN] 0.3 g/L glucose remained unfermented without ORP control. As high as 131.0 [PLUS-MINUS SIGN] 1.8 g/L ethanol was produced at 72 h when ORP was controlled at [MINUS SIGN]150 mV for the VHG fermentation with medium containing 298 [PLUS-MINUS SIGN] 3.8 g/L glucose, since yeast cell viability was improved more significantly. CONCLUSIONS: No lag phase was observed during ethanol fermentation with the flocculating yeast, and the implementation of ORP control improved ethanol productivity and yield. When ORP was controlled at [MINUS SIGN]150 mV, more reducing power was available for yeast cells to survive, which in turn improved their viability and VHG ethanol fermentation performance. On the other hand, controlling ORP at [MINUS SIGN]100 mV stimulated yeast growth and enhanced ethanol production under the HG conditions. Moreover, the ORP profile detected during ethanol fermentation with the flocculating yeast was less fluctuated, indicating that yeast flocculation could attenuate the ORP fluctuation observed during ethanol fermentation with non-flocculating yeast.     

Production of xylitol from Candida tropicalis by using an oxidation-reduction potential-stat controlled fermentation

An on-line device, ORP (oxidation-reduction potential)-stat, was used to control glucose-feeding for enhancing xylitol conversion from D-xylose during an oxygen-limited fermentation by Candida tropicalis. The fermentation was carried out in a 5 l jar fermenter. After glucose in the medium was depleted, a switching to a limited aeration and feeding glucose controlled by ORP-stat was performed. The maximum xylitol yield was obtained under a condition at an ORP of -180 mV and at an aeration rate of 0.2 l min(-1).     

Production of xylitol from Candida tropicalis by using an oxidation-reduction potential-stat controlled fermentation

An on-line device, ORP (oxidation-reduction potential)-stat, was used to control glucose-feeding for enhancing xylitol conversion from D-xylose during an oxygen-limited fermentation by Candida tropicalis. The fermentation was carried out in a 5 l jar fermenter. After glucose in the medium was depleted, a switching to a limited aeration and feeding glucose controlled by ORP-stat was performed. The maximum xylitol yield was obtained under a condition at an ORP of - 180 mV and at an aeration rate of 0.2 l min(-1).     

Oxidative and Reductive Routes of Glycerol and Glucose Fermentation by Escherichia coli Batch Cultures and Their Regulation by Oxidizing and Reducing Reagents at Different pHs

Glycerol and glucose fermentation redox routes by Escherichia coli and their regulation by oxidizing and reducing reagents were investigated at different pHs. Cell growth was followed by decrease of pH and redox potential (E _h ). During glycerol utilization at pH 7.5 ?pH, the difference between initial and end pH, was lower compared with glucose fermentation. After 8 h growth, during glycerol utilization E _h dropped down to negative values (?150 mV) but during glucose fermentation it was positive (+50 mV). In case of glycerol H₂ was evolved at the middle log phase while during glucose fermentation H₂ was produced during early log phase. Furthermore, upon glycerol utilization, oxidizer potassium ferricyanide (1 mM) inhibited both cell growth and H₂ formation. Reducing reagents dl-dithiothreitol (3 mM) and dithionite (1 mM) inhibited growth but stimulated H₂ production. The findings point out the importance of reductive conditions for glycerol fermentation and H₂ production by E. coli.     

Production of lactic acid and fructose from media with cane sugar using mutant of Lactobacillus delbrueckii NCIM 2365

AIMS: To examine the potential of Lactobacillus delbrueckii mutant, Uc-3 to produce lactic acid and fructose from sucrose-based media. METHODS AND RESULTS: The mutant of L. delbrueckii NCIM 2365 was cultivated in shake flask containing hydrolysed cane sugar (sucrose)-based medium. The lactic acid yield and volumetric productivity with hydrolysed cane concentration up to 200 g l(-1) were in the range of 92-97% of the theoretical value and between 2.7 and 3.8 g l(-1) h(-1), respectively. The fructose fraction of the syrup produced was more than 95% when the total initial sugar concentration in the medium was higher (150-200 g l(-1)). There are no unwanted byproducts detected in the fermentation broth. CONCLUSIONS: We demonstrated that L. delbrueckii mutant Uc-3 was able to utilize glucose preferentially to produce lactic acid and fructose from hydrolysed cane sugar in batch fermentation process. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: These findings will be useful in the production of lactic acid and high fructose syrups using media with high concentrations of sucrose-based raw materials. This approach can lead to modification of the traditional fermentation processes to obtain value-added byproducts, attaining better process economics.     

Increase of xylitol production rate by controlling redox potential in Candida parapsilosis

The effect of redox potential on xylitol production by Candida parapsilosis was investigated. The redox potential was found to be useful for monitoring the dissolved oxygen (DO) level in culture media, especially when the DO level was low. An increase in the agitation speed in a 5 L fermentor resulted in an increased culture redox potential as well as enhanced cell growth. Production of xylitol was maximized at a redox potential of 100 mV. As the initial cell concentration increased from 8 g/L to 30 g/L, the volumetric productivity of xylitol increased from 1.38 g/L. h to 4.62 g/L. h. A two-stage xylitol production strategy was devised, with stage 1 involving rapid production of cells under well-aerated conditions, and stage 2 involving cultivation with reduced aeration such that the culture redox potential was 100 mV. Using this technique, a final xylitol concentration of 180 g/L was obtained from a culture medium totally containing 254.5 g/L xylose in a 3,000 L pilot scale fermentor after 77 h fermentation. The volumetric productivity of xylitol during the fermentation was 2.34 g/L. h.     

End product inhibition in methane fermentations: Effects of carbon dioxide on fermentative and acetogenic bacteria

Summary The rates of glucose utilization by fermentative bacteria and propionate and butyrate utilization by acetogenic bacteria were studied and their dependence of pCO₂ in the interval 0–1 bar was determined. A batch fermentation method was used permitting good control of fermentation parameters and rapid experiments.The rate of glucose fermentation to acids, CO₂ and H₂ was in the order of 12,000 mg glucose/l · day which was about two orders of magnitude faster than the utilization of propionic and butyric acid by acetogenic bacteria. The rate of glucose utilization was about 30% greater at low values of pCO₂ compared with 1 bar CO₂.Propionate degradation was strongly affected by pCO₂; rates were 60 mg/l · day at pCO₂=1 bar and 200 mg/l · day at pCO₂=0.2 bar. Some CO₂ was required since the rate of propionate utilization dropped rapidly below pCO₂=0.2 bar. The rate of butyric acid utilization was constant at 170 mg/l · day; slightly lower at pCO₂=1 bar.Yields of methane from glucose or acids were close to the theoretical value 50% of degraded substrate-carbon. Yields were 20–30% higher at low values of pCO₂ compared with 1 bar CO₂.The redox potential was usually between –200 and –250 mV, slowly increasing to between –150 and –200 mV during fermentation. No clear connection between rates of substrate utilization, pCO₂ and E_h was detected.     

Effects of Anoxia on Wheat Seedlings: II. INFLUENCE OF O2 SUPPLY PRIOR TO ANOXIA ON TOLERANCE TO ANOXIA, ALCOHOLIC FERMENTATION, AND SUGAR LEVELS

Prior exposure of roots of intact wheat seedlings for 15–30h to hypoxia (0016-006 mol m 02) greatly increased their toleranceto subsequent anoxia, as assessed by the ability of the rootsto elongate upon return to air. Such hypoxically pretreatedroots had 2–4-fold higher activities of pyruvate decarboxylase(PDC) and 35–l7-fold higher activities of alcohol dehydrogenase(ADH) in their 0–1 mm apices and 0–5 mm root tipsthan in apices and tips of roots pretreated in air (026–031mol m3 02). The ADH/ PDC ratio increased I 3–5-fold duringhypoxic pretreatment. Furthermore, the rate of alcoholic fermentationby 0–5 mm tips of the hypoxically pretreated roots was14-4-fold faster than in tips from aerobically pretreated roots.No consistent difference between 02 pretreatment was found foralcoholic fermentation by tissues taken between 10 and 20 mmfrom the root tip. The observed activities of PDC and rates of alcoholic fermentationindicate that alcoholic fermentation is usually rate-limitedby PDC in 0–1 mm apices and 0–5 mm tips of wheatroots. Comparisons with data in the literature indicate thatwheat has at most a small Pasteur effect, which may explainwhy wheat is more intolerant to anoxia than rice. Exogenous glucose delayed the loss of elongation potential inboth aerobically and hypoxically pretreated roots. In the absenceof glucose, more than 85% of aerobically pretreated roots hadlost their elongation potential after 9 h anoxia, compared with30% in the presence of glucose. After 21 h anoxia nearly allaerobically pretreated roots had lost their elongation potential,compared with 10% and 0% of hypoxically pretreated roots inthe absence and presence, of glucose, respectively. The protective effect of glucose was presumably not due to anendogenous sugar deficiency; at the start of anoxia, 0–1mm apices of aerobically pretreated roots contained sufficientsugar for 23 h of their measured rate of ethanol synthesis yet,85% of these apices had lost their elongation potential afteronly 9 h of anoxia. It is suggested that in wheat roots, lowrates of synthesis of ethanol and hence of ATP, lead to injuryof cells, in turn generating a requirement for exogenous glucose,despite high endogenous sugar concentrations. Key words: Wheat seedlings, anoxia, glucose, O₂ pretreatment, alcoholic fermentation     

Effect of redox potential on stationary-phase xylitol fermentations using<Emphasis Type="Italic"> Candida tropicalis</Emphasis>

Redox potential was used to develop a stationary-phase fermentation of Candida tropicalis that resulted in non-growth conditions with a limited decline in cell viability, a xylitol yield of 0.87 g g^–1 (95% of the theoretical value), and a high maximum specific production rate (0.67 g g^–1 h^–1). A redox potential of 100 mV was found to be optimum for xylitol production over the range 0–150 mV. A shift from ethanol to xylitol production occurred when the redox potential was reduced from 50 mV to 100 mV as cumulative ethanol (Y_ethanol) decreased from 0.34 g g^–1 to 0.025 g g^–1 and Y_xylitol increased from 0.15 g g^–1 to 0.87 g g^–1 (=0.05). Reducing the redox potential to 150 mV did not improve the fermentation. Instead, the xylitol yield and productivity decreased to 0.63 g g^–1 and 0.58 g g^–1 h^–1 respectively and cell viability declined. The viable, stationary-phase fermentation could be used to develop a continuous fermentation process, significantly increasing volumetric productivity and reducing downstream separation costs, potentially by the use of a membrane cell-recycle reactor.Electronic supplementary material is available if you access this article at . On that page (frame on the left side), a link takes you directly to the electronic supplementary materialAn erratum to this article can be found at     

Evidence that ferredoxin interfaces with an internal redox shuttle in Acetyl-CoA synthase during reductive activation and catalysis

Acetyl-CoA synthase (ACS), a subunit of the bifunctional CO dehydrogenase/acetyl-CoA synthase (CODH/ACS) complex of Moorella thermoacetica requires reductive activation in order to catalyze acetyl-CoA synthesis and related partial reactions, including the CO/[1-(14)C]-acetyl-CoA exchange reaction. We show that the M. thermoacetica ferredoxin(II) (Fd-II), which harbors two [4Fe-4S] clusters and is an electron acceptor for CODH, serves as a redox activator of ACS. The level of activation depends on the oxidation states of both ACS and Fd-II, which strongly suggests that Fd-II acts as a reducing agent. By the use of controlled potential enzymology, the midpoint reduction potential for the catalytic one-electron redox-active species in the CO/acetyl-CoA exchange reaction is -511 mV, which is similar to the midpoint reduction potential that was earlier measured for other reactions involving ACS. Incubation of ACS with Fd-II and CO leads to the formation of the NiFeC species, which also supports the role of Fd-II as a reductant for ACS. In addition to being a reductant, Fd-II can accept electrons from acetylated ACS, as observed by the increased intensity of the EPR spectrum of reduced Fd-II, indicating that there is a stored electron within an "electron shuttle" in the acetyl-Ni(II) form of ACS. This "shuttle" is proposed to serve as a redox mediator during activation and at different steps of the ACS catalytic cycle.     

Glutamine and KGF each regulate extracellular thiol/disulfide redox and enhance proliferation in Caco-2 cells

Glutamine (Gln) and keratinocyte growth factor (KGF) each stimulate intestinal epithelial cell growth, but regulatory mechanisms are not well understood. We determined whether Gln and KGF alter intra- and extracellular thiol/disulfide redox pools in Caco-2 cells cultured in oxidizing or reducing cell medium and whether such redox variations are a determinant of proliferative responses to these agents. Cells were cultured over a physiological range of oxidizing to reducing extracellular thiol/disulfide redox (Eh) conditions, obtained by varying cysteine (Cys) and cystine (CySS) concentrations in cell medium. Cell proliferation was determined by 5-bromo-2-deoxyuridine (BrdU) incorporation. Gln (10 mmol/l) or KGF (10 microg/l) did not alter BrdU incorporation at reducing Eh (-131 to -150 mV), but significantly increased incorporation at more oxidizing Eh (Gln at 0 to -109 mV; KGF at -46 to -80 mV). Cellular glutathione/glutathione disulfide (GSH/GSSG) Eh was unaffected by Gln, KGF, or variations in extracellular Cys/CySS Eh. Control cells largely maintained extracellular Eh at initial values after 24 h (-36 to -136 mV). However, extracellular Eh shifted toward a narrow physiological range with Gln and KGF treatment (Gln -56 to -88 mV and KGF -76 to -92 mV, respectively; P < 0.05 vs. control). The results indicate that thiol/disulfide redox state in the extracellular milieu is an important determinant of Caco-2 cell proliferation induced by Gln and KGF, that this control is independent of intracellular GSH redox status, and that both Gln and KGF enhance the capability of Caco-2 cells to modulate extremes of extracellular redox.     

A rearranging ligand enables allosteric control of catalytic activity in copper-containing nitrite reductase

In Cu-containing nitrite reductase from Alcaligenes faecalis S-6 the axial methionine ligand of the type-1 site was replaced (M150G) to make the copper ion accessible to external ligands that might affect the enzyme's catalytic activity. The type-1 site optical spectrum of M150G (A(460)/A(600)=0.71) differs significantly from that of the native nitrite reductase (A(460)/A(600)=1.3). The midpoint potential of the type-1 site of nitrite reductase M150G (E(M)=312(+/-5)mV versus hydrogen) is higher than that of the native enzyme (E(M)=213(+/-5)mV). M150G has a lower catalytic activity (k(cat)=133(+/-6)s(-1)) than the wild-type nitrite reductase (k(cat)=416(+/-10)s(-1)). The binding of external ligands to M150G restores spectral properties, midpoint potential (E(M)<225mV), and catalytic activity (k(cat)=374(+/-28)s(-1)). Also the M150H (A(460)/A(600)=7.7, E(M)=104(+/-5)mV, k(cat)=0.099(+/-0.006)s(-1)) and M150T (A(460)/A(600)=0.085, E(M)=340(+/-5)mV, k(cat)=126(+/-2)s(-1)) variants were characterized. Crystal structures show that the ligands act as allosteric effectors by displacing Met62, which moves to bind to the Cu in the position emptied by the M150G mutation. The reconstituted type-1 site has an otherwise unaltered geometry. The observation that removal of an endogenous ligand can introduce allosteric control in a redox enzyme suggests potential for structural and functional flexibility of copper-containing redox sites.     

Ethanol fermentation in an immobilized cell reactor using Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Fermentation of sugar by Saccharomyces cerevisiae, for production of ethanol in an immobilized cell reactor (ICR) was successfully carried out to improve the performance of the fermentation process. The fermentation set-up was comprised of a column packed with beads of immobilized cells. The immobilization of S. cerevisiae was simply performed by the enriched cells cultured media harvested at exponential growth phase. The fixed cell loaded ICR was carried out at initial stage of operation and the cell was entrapped by calcium alginate. The production of ethanol was steady after 24 h of operation. The concentration of ethanol was affected by the media flow rates and residence time distribution from 2 to 7 h. In addition, batch fermentation was carried out with 50 g/l glucose concentration. Subsequently, the ethanol productions and the reactor productivities of batch fermentation and immobilized cells were compared. In batch fermentation, sugar consumption and ethanol production obtained were 99.6% and 12.5% v/v after 27 h while in the ICR, 88.2% and 16.7% v/v were obtained with 6 h retention time. Nearly 5% ethanol production was achieved with high glucose concentration (150 g/l) at 6 h retention time. A yield of 38% was obtained with 150 g/l glucose. The yield was improved approximately 27% on ICR and a 24 h fermentation time was reduced to 7 h. The cell growth rate was based on the Monod rate equation. The kinetic constants (K(s) and mu(m)) of batch fermentation were 2.3 g/l and 0.35 g/lh, respectively. The maximum yield of biomass on substrate (Y(X-S)) and the maximum yield of product on substrate (Y(P-S)) in batch fermentations were 50.8% and 31.2% respectively. Productivity of the ICR were 1.3, 2.3, and 2.8 g/lh for 25, 35, 50 g/l of glucose concentration, respectively. The productivity of ethanol in batch fermentation with 50 g/l glucose was calculated as 0.29 g/lh. Maximum production of ethanol in ICR when compared to batch reactor has shown to increase approximately 10-fold. The performance of the two reactors was compared and a respective rate model was proposed. The present research has shown that high sugar concentration (150 g/l) in the ICR column was successfully converted to ethanol. The achieved results in ICR with high substrate concentration are promising for scale up operation. The proposed model can be used to design a lager scale ICR column for production of high ethanol concentration.     

Rapid ethanol production from sucrose without by-product formation

Summary Non-sorbitol-producing Zymomonas mobilis ACM 3963 was developed from Z. mobilis UQM 2716. This strain was co-immobilised with invertase in alginate and incubated on sucrose-based media. This combination allowed theoretical yields of ethanol to be produced from 100 and 150 g/l sucrose, using both semi-defined media and sugar-cane syrup. No sorbitol or fructo-oligosaccharides were formed in either fermentation. Increased biomass concentrations immobilised in alginate reduced the batch fermentation times of 100 and 150 g/l sucrose by 50–70%, to 3 and 5 hours respectively. This strain also improved the efficiency of the fed-batch fermentation of sucrose.     

The kinetics of ethanol production by Zymomonas mobilis on fructose and sucrose media

Summary Z.mobilis is strain ZM4 was grown on 250 g/l fructose and sucrose media in batch culture and on 100 and 150 g/l sucrose media in continuous culture. With fructose, a significant reduction in the growth rate and the cell yield was apparent although the other kinetic parameters were similar to those previously reported for fermentation of glucose. With sucrose the major differences were a reduction in ethanol yield, (due to levan formation) and a lower final ethanol concentration. Ethanol inhibition of sucrose metabolism occurred at relatively low ethanol concentrations compared to those inhibiting glucose metabolism.     

Reductive dechlorination of Tri- and tetrachloroethylenes depends on transition from aerobic to anaerobic conditions.

Aerobic enrichment cultures from contaminated groundwaters dechlorinated trichloroethylene (TCE) (14.6 mg/liter; 111 mumol/liter) and tetrachloroethylene (PCE) (16.2 mg/liter; 98 mumol/liter) reductively within 4 days after the transition from aerobic to anaerobic conditions. The transformation products were equimolar amounts of cis-1,2-dichloroethylene and traces of 1,1-dichloroethylene. No other chlorinated product and no methane were detected. The change was accompanied by the release of sulfide, which caused a decrease in the redox potential from 0 to -150 mV. In sterile control experiments, sulfide led to the abiotic formation of traces of 1,1-dichloroethylene without cis-1,2-dichloroethylene production. The reductive dechlorination of PCE via TCE depended on these specific transition conditions after consumption of the electron acceptor oxygen or nitrate. Repeated feeding of TCE or PCE to cultures after the change to anaerobic conditions yielded no further dechlorination. Only aerobic subcultures with an air/liquid ratio of 1:4 maintained dechlorination activities; anaerobic subcultures showed no transformation. Bacteria from noncontaminated sites showed no reduction under the same conditions.     

Reductive dechlorination of Tri- and tetrachloroethylenes depends on transition from aerobic to anaerobic conditions

Aerobic enrichment cultures from contaminated groundwaters dechlorinated trichloroethylene (TCE) (14.6 mg/liter; 111 mumol/liter) and tetrachloroethylene (PCE) (16.2 mg/liter; 98 mumol/liter) reductively within 4 days after the transition from aerobic to anaerobic conditions. The transformation products were equimolar amounts of cis-1,2-dichloroethylene and traces of 1,1-dichloroethylene. No other chlorinated product and no methane were detected. The change was accompanied by the release of sulfide, which caused a decrease in the redox potential from 0 to -150 mV. In sterile control experiments, sulfide led to the abiotic formation of traces of 1,1-dichloroethylene without cis-1,2-dichloroethylene production. The reductive dechlorination of PCE via TCE depended on these specific transition conditions after consumption of the electron acceptor oxygen or nitrate. Repeated feeding of TCE or PCE to cultures after the change to anaerobic conditions yielded no further dechlorination. Only aerobic subcultures with an air/liquid ratio of 1:4 maintained dechlorination activities; anaerobic subcultures showed no transformation. Bacteria from noncontaminated sites showed no reduction under the same conditions.     

Intensification of β-poly(l-malic acid) production by Aureobasidium pullulans ipe-1 in the late exponential growth phase

β-Poly(malic acid) (PMLA) has attracted industrial interest because this polyester can be used as a prodrug or for drug delivery systems. In PMLA production by Aureobasidium pullulans ipe-1, it was found that PLMA production was associated with cell growth in the early exponential growth phase and dissociated from cell growth in the late exponential growth phase. To enhance PMLA production in the late phase, different fermentation modes and strategies for controlling culture redox potential (CRP) were studied. The results showed that high concentrations of produced PMLA (above 40 g/l) not only inhibited PMLA production, but also was detrimental to cell growth. Moreover, when CRP increased from 57 to 100 mV in the late exponential growth phase, the lack of reducing power in the broth also decreased PMLA productivity. PMLA productivity could be enhanced by repeated-batch culture to maintain cell growth in the exponential growth phase, or by cell-recycle culture with membrane to remove the produced PMLA, or by maintaining CRP below 70 mV no matter which kind of fermentation mode was adopted. Repeated-batch culture afforded a high PMLA concentration (up to 63.2 g/l) with a productivity of 1.15 g l(-1) h(-1). Cell-recycle culture also confirmed that PMLA production by the strain ipe-1 was associated with cell growth.