Role of natural day-length and temperature in determination of summer and winter diapause in Pieris melete (Lepidoptera: Pieridae)

Under field conditions, the cabbage butterfly, Pieris melete, displays a pupal summer diapause in response to relatively low daily temperatures and gradually increasing day-length during spring and a pupal winter diapause in response to the progressively shorter day-length. To determine whether photoperiod is 'more' important than temperature in the determination of summer and winter diapause, or vice versa, the effects of naturally changing day-length and temperature on the initiation of summer and winter diapause were systematically investigated under field conditions for five successive years. Field results showed that the incidence of summer diapause significantly declined with the naturally increasing temperature in spring and summer generations. Path coefficient analysis showed that the effect of temperature was much greater than photoperiod in the determination of summer diapause. In autumn, the incidence of diapause was extremely low when larvae developed under gradually shortening day-length and high temperatures. The incidence of winter diapause increased to 60-90% or higher with gradually shortening day-length combined with temperatures between 20.0°C and 22.0°C. Decreasing day-length played a more important role in the determination of winter diapause induction than temperature. The eco-adaptive significance of changing day-length and temperature in the determination of summer and winter diapause was discussed.     

Temperature requirements of Atlantic salmon Salmo salar, brown trout Salmo trutta and Arctic charr Salvelinus alpinus: predicting the effects of climate change

Atlantic salmon Salmo salar, brown trout Salmo trutta (including the anadromous form, sea trout) and Arctic charr Salvelinus alpinus (including anadromous fish) provide important commercial and sports fisheries in Western Europe. As water temperature increases as a result of climate change, quantitative information on the thermal requirements of these three species is essential so that potential problems can be anticipated by those responsible for the conservation and sustainable management of the fisheries and the maintenance of biodiversity in freshwater ecosystems. Part I compares the temperature limits for survival, feeding and growth. Salmo salar has the highest temperature tolerance, followed by S. trutta and finally S. alpinus. For all three species, the temperature tolerance for alevins is slightly lower than that for parr and smolts, and the eggs have the lowest tolerance; this being the most vulnerable life stage to any temperature increase, especially for eggs of S. alpinus in shallow water. There was little evidence to support local thermal adaptation, except in very cold rivers (mean annual temperature <6·5° C). Part II illustrates the importance of developing predictive models, using data from a long-term study (1967-2000) of a juvenile anadromous S. trutta population. Individual-based models predicted the emergence period for the fry. Mean values over 34 years revealed a large variation in the timing of emergence with c. 2 months between extreme values. The emergence time correlated significantly with the North Atlantic Oscillation Index, indicating that interannual variations in emergence were linked to more general changes in climate. Mean stream temperatures increased significantly in winter and spring at a rate of 0·37° C per decade, but not in summer and autumn, and led to an increase in the mean mass of pre-smolts. A growth model for S. trutta was validated by growth data from the long-term study and predicted growth under possible future conditions. Small increases (<2·5° C) in winter and spring would be beneficial for growth with 1 year-old smolts being more common. Water temperatures would have to increase by c. 4° C in winter and spring, and 3° C in summer and autumn before they had a marked negative effect on trout growth.     

Age, growth and rate of food consumption in an upland population of the three-spined stickleback, Gasterosteus aculeatus L.

In a population of Gasterosteus aculeatus living in an infertile, upland lake, the fish bred at the age of one year and few survived to breed again. The highest growth rates were achieved in the first month of life, but in comparison with other populations of G. aculeatus growth was slow during the autumn and ceased during the winter. But in spring and early summer, there was a spurt in the growth rate.
Laboratory studies provided regression models for the prediction of the rate of food consumption from measurements of growth. The estimates of the consumption rate indicated the effect of the growth in body size and seasonal variations during the first year of life. It was estimated that a fish of mean length in the population consumed 3150 mg of food in a year in which it grew from 65.8 to 552.0 mg, with an overall gross growth efficiency of 15.4%.
The study illustrated the integration of laboratory and field studies to obtain reasonable estimates of the rate of food consumption by fish throughout their first year of life.     

HERITABLE VARIATION FOR FECUNDITY IN FIELD-COLLECTED DROSOPHILA MELANOGASTER AND THEIR OFFSPRING REARED UNDER DIFFERENT ENVIRONMENTAL TEMPERATURES

Heritable variation for fitness components is normally measured under favorable laboratory conditions, but organisms in the field experience variable conditions that are often stressful and may affect the expression of heritable variation. We examined heritable variation for early fecundity in three samples of Drosophila melanogaster from the field. Flies were obtained from a rotting fruit pile in summer, autumn, and spring, and progeny were reared under laboratory conditions. Field parents were tested for fecundity at 14°C or 28°C depending on ambient temperatures. Wing/thorax length ratios measured on flies from the spring collection suggested that flies had developed at around 20°C. Progeny were reared and tested at 14°C, 25°C, and 28°C. In the summer collection, parent-offspring regression coefficients were high and significant, compared to nonsignificant values obtained in two of three autumn comparisons. In the spring collection, parent-offspring regressions were negative regardless of testing temperature, suggesting that field females with a high fecundity produced offspring with low scores. Comparisons of F₁ and F₂ laboratory generations indicated intermediate heritabilities for fecundity in the laboratory. The lower bound heritability estimate for fecundity in field individuals was 37% in summer and 59% in autumn. Estimates of field heritability and evolvability for wing length measured in the spring collection were lower than in the laboratory. The results indicate that heritabilities and additive genetic variances for fecundity can be high in field-reared flies, but that results may vary between field collections.     

Temperature controls seed germination and dormancy in the European woodland herbaceous perennial Erythronium dens-canis (Liliaceae)

We examined the germination ecology and the temperature requirements for germination of Erythronium dens-canis, under both outdoor and laboratory conditions. E. dens-canis is a spring flowering woodland geophyte widely distributed across Europe. Germination phenology, including embryo development and radicle and cotyledon emergence, were investigated in a natural population growing in Northern Italy. Immediately after harvest, seeds of E. dens-canis were either sown on agar in the laboratory under simulated seasonal temperatures or placed in nylon mesh sachets and buried in the wild. Embryos, undifferentiated at the time of seed dispersal, grew during summer and autumn conditions in the laboratory and in the wild, culminating in radicle emergence in winter when temperatures fell to ≈ 5 °C. Emergence of cotyledons did not occur immediately after radicle emergence, but was delayed until the end of winter. Laboratory experiments showed that temperature is the main factor controlling dormancy and germination, with seeds becoming non-dormant only when given warmth, followed by cold stratification. Unlike seeds of E. dens-canis that germinate in winter, in other Erythronium species radicle emergence occurs in autumn, while in some it is delayed until seeds are transferred from winter to spring conditions. Our results suggest that there is genetic and environmental control of the expression of seed dormancy amongst Erythronium species, which is related to local climate.     

The adult body size variation of Dryas iulia (Lepidoptera,Nymphalidae, Heliconiinae) in different populations is more influenced by temperature variation than by host‐plant availability during the seasons

The body size of insects is affected by environmental conditions during development and can present considerable intraspecific variations, which can be seen as an ultimate consequence/adaptation to environmental conditions. This paper evaluated whether the body size of the butterfly Dryas iulia from subtropical populations was influenced by changing climate conditions and food source availability during the seasons. The likely reasons behind body size variation were also investigated. First, field data on body size variation, host‐plant availability and climate fluctuation throughout the seasons were recorded. Then, the effects of host‐plant species and temperature on body size were analyzed by controlled experiments. Field data revealed that body size and host‐plant availability varied significantly through the seasons. Populations had the smallest body size during the spring and the biggest size during summer, whereas host‐plant availability was lower during winter and higher during spring. The controlled experiments revealed that both temperature and host‐plant had significant effect on the plasticity of body size. Larvae subjected to winter temperature treatment led to smaller butterflies when compared to immatures reared under summer temperature treatment, and larvae fed with Passiflora misera produced bigger adults when compared to larvae reared on Passiflora suberosa. The combination of data gathered in the field and in the laboratory suggests that seasonal body size variation in D. iulia is related mainly to differences in the temperatures to which larvae are subjected during development, while host‐plant shifts caused by differential availability of food through the seasons had slightly effects on the variation observed.     

Thermal acclimation, growth, and burst swimming of threespine stickleback: enzymatic correlates and influence of photoperiod

Threespine sticklebacks (Gasterosteus aculeatus) that had been reared in the laboratory under natural photoperiods were acclimated to 23 degrees and 8 degrees C in late spring under increasing day lengths and again in late fall under decreasing day lengths. The parents of these fish were from the anadromous Isle Verte population. In the spring, cold- and warm-acclimated fish grew at the same rates and attained similar condition factors (mass L(-3)), although food intake was considerably higher at 23 degrees C. As both groups had similar increases in mass and condition, the higher axial muscle activities of citrate synthase and phosphofructokinase (measured at 20 degrees C) after cold acclimation were likely a direct response to temperature. Multiple regression analysis showed that axial muscle levels of cytochrome C oxidase and citrate synthase were correlated with the burst swimming speeds of the spring sticklebacks, while growth rates were positively correlated with lactate dehydrogenase levels in pectoral and axial muscles and creatine kinase levels in the axial muscle. In the fall, the fish in both acclimation groups grew little, although they fed at similar rates as in the spring experiment. Overall, the sticklebacks showed lower burst swimming speeds in the fall. In both spring and fall, the burst speeds of cold- and warm-acclimated sticklebacks only differed at warm temperatures. In the spring experiment, the cold-acclimated fish swam faster, whereas in the fall experiment the warm-acclimated fish swam faster despite their lower percentage of axial muscle. Swimming speeds were measured both at a fish's acclimation temperature and after 12 h at the other temperature. Cold-acclimated sticklebacks seem to have more facility in rapidly adjusting to warm temperatures when they have experienced increasing rather than decreasing day lengths, perhaps as a result of the requirements of the spring migration to the intertidal breeding grounds.     

Growth of larval Pacific anchovy Engraulis japonicus in the Yellow Sea as indicated by otolith microstructure analysis

Larval Pacific anchovy Engraulis japonicus were sampled from coastal waters off the central west coast of Korea from June to November 1996. Using otolith microstructure analysis (daily growth increments), three cohorts (spring, early summer and late summer) were distinguished based on backcalculated spawning dates. Growth rates differed between cohorts, with higher growth rates for late-summer cohorts than either the spring or early-summer cohorts. Growth rate was positively related to surface water temperature, with an optimum temperature range of between 20 and 26° C occurring during the late summer (late July through to mid-September). The study highlights that early growth rates of Pacific anchovy are dependent on ecosystem (particularly water temperature) attributes during early life.     

Influence of seston quantity and quality on growth of tropical cladocerans.

The seston of the small, shallow, and tropical lake Monte Alegre was tested for quantity and quality for cladocerans by growth bioassays, which were carried out in spring (Daphnia gessneri and Moina micrura), summer (D. gessneri, M. micrura, Ceriodaphnia cornuta, and Simocephalus mixtus), and winter (D. gessneri and D. ambigua). Cohorts of newborns originating from ovigerous females collected in the lake or from laboratory cultures were submitted, at a room temperature of 23 degrees C to the following treatments: (1) the chlorophytes Ankistrodesmus falcatus and/or Scenedesmus spinosus; (2) lake seston; and (3) lake seston + chlorophytes. Growth rate, clutch size, and fecundity were evaluated. Seston alone was not the best food for promoting cladoceran growth. There were seasonal differences in food quantity and quality with spring and summer seston being better for growth than that of the winter. Adding chlorophytes to the seston increased clutch size and fecundity for most species in summer and winter, but not in spring. Energy limitation seems to be the most important factor influencing cladoceran growth in summer and especially in winter.     

Life histories of Atlantic salmon altered by winter temperature and summer rearing in fresh- or sea-water

Increased growth during winter increased the incidence of age 1+ Salmo salar smolts in spring. High condition factor in spring and good growth in summer was associated with a high incidence of sexually mature males in autumn. In two experiments, groups (n=160–237 per group) of individually identified parr, either ungraded (lower and upper modal groups: LMG, UMG) or size-graded (LMG only), were reared at either 10, 6 or 3 °C overwinter (Nov to May). At 10 °C, up to 51% of parr originally in the LMG became smolts in spring at age 1+. In contrast, at either 6 or 3 °C (control), < 6% of LMG parr became smolts. The probability of being recruited into the UMG overwinter was positively related to initial body size, and was increased by size-grading. Smolt recruitment was two-fold higher among females compared to males; a proportion of males by age 0+ had already opted to mature at age 1+ rather than smolt at age 1+. In contrast, smolting at age 1+ was not inhibited in males previously mature at age 0+. During summer (May to Nov), all experimental groups were reared at ambient temperature, each subdivided between fresh water (max 21 °C) or seawater (max 15 °C). Good growth in seawater of winter recruits into the UMG confirmed they had completed smolting. Mortality in seawater among parr was 41–83%, and among smolts was 10–22%. Specific growth rate during summer was inversely related to winter rearing temperature. The incidence of sexual maturity in autumn at age 1+ among male parr was positively related to winter rearing temperature, fork length and condition factor in May, but there was large variation among individuals with respect to body size and maturity. Summer rearing in seawater reduced growth and the incidence of maturation. Parr and post-smolt maturity was 84–99% and 100% in fresh water respectively, 21–58% and 0% in seawater.     

东海太平洋褶柔鱼生殖群体的空间分布及其与环境因子的关系

依据1997-2000年在东海(26°00′-33°00′N、120°30′-128°00′E)进行的4个季节的底拖网调查资料,分析了该海区太平洋褶柔鱼生殖群体的时空分布特征,同时结合广义相加模型(GAM),量化分析了各环境因子对于其种群成熟度指数(PMI)空间分布的影响机制。结果表明:太平洋褶柔鱼生殖群体春、夏、秋、冬4个季节在东海均有分布;秋季PMI值最高,春季最低;4个季节太平洋褶柔鱼生殖群体的分布范围均较广,主要集中在东海外海受台湾暖流和黑潮控制的水域。太平洋褶柔鱼生殖群体的环境适应性存在明显的季节差异:其分布的底温范围为:春季14.70-18.30℃、夏季13.18-20.91℃、秋季13.96-24.67℃、冬季14.33-19.75℃。底盐范围为:春季29.52-34.63、夏季31.57-34.27、秋季32.26-34.72、冬季34.25-34.70。水深范围为:春季55-179m,夏季43-176m、秋季40-184m、冬季79-152m。综上所述,东海太平洋褶柔鱼生殖群体的时空分布具有广范围、多季度的特点,这种分布特征可有效降低其幼体间的种间竞争,为确保其种群繁衍提供有利保障。     

Administration of a commercial immunostimulant preparation,EcoActiva as a feed supplement enhances macrophage respiratory burst and the growth rate of snapper (Pagrus auratus,Sparidae (Bloch and Schneider)) in winter

This study investigated the effects of prolonged administration of a commercial beta-glucan based immunostimulant preparation, EcoActiva, in the form of a feed supplement, on non-specific immune parameters and the growth rate of snapper (Pagrus auratus). Fish held at a temperature representing either summer or winter conditions, were sampled periodically and assayed for head kidney macrophage activity via in vitro superoxide production, and classical and alternative complement activity. Fish were also weighed monthly and the growth rate determined. Fish fed on a diet supplemented with EcoActiva and held at the winter temperature had a significant enhancement of macrophage superoxide anion production upon stimulation with phorbol myristate acetate (PMA), and this increased activity was maintained throughout the trial. Macrophage activity in fish fed the supplemented diet and held at the summer temperature was also increased. However, EcoActiva failed to increase either classical or alternate complement activity. Most significantly EcoActiva resulted in an increase in growth rates of the fish held at the winter temperature as compared to the control fish, although no difference was seen between the groups held at the summer temperature. These results suggest that routine incorporation of beta-glucan preparations like EcoActivaduring winter may enhance macrophage function and growth rates at a time of increased disease susceptibility and little or no growth.     

Influence of body weight and temperature on growth rates of Arctic charr, Salvelinus alpinus (L.)

When reared for a period of 6 months at a temperature of 10°C Arctic charr, Salvelinus alpinus , increased in weight from 18 g to approximately 135 g. Specific growth rates decreased as the fish increased in size and the relationship between size and growth rate could be described by the equation:
where G _w is specific growth rate and W is fish weight in grams. Temperature effects upon growth were examined using previously published data. Below the optimum growth temperature, the growth rate of a fish of given size could be predicted using the equation:
where T is the rearing temperature.
Rates of growth of Arctic charr were as high as those reported for other salmonid species reared under similar conditions. Preliminary results suggested that growth rates of charr may be lower in salt water than in fresh water.     

Strong Costs and Benefits of Winter Acclimatization in Drosophila melanogaster

Studies on thermal acclimation in insects are often performed on animals acclimated in the laboratory under conditions that are not ecologically relevant. Costs and benefits of acclimation responses under such conditions may not reflect costs and benefits in natural populations subjected to daily and seasonal temperature fluctuations. Here we estimated costs and benefits in thermal tolerance limits in relation to winter acclimatization of Drosophila melanogaster. We sampled flies from a natural habitat during winter in Denmark (field flies) and compared heat and cold tolerance of these to that of flies collected from the same natural population, but acclimated to 25 °C or 13 °C in the laboratory (laboratory flies). We further obtained thermal performance curves for egg-to-adult viability of field and laboratory (25 °C) flies, to estimate possible cross-generational effects of acclimation. We found much higher cold tolerance and a lowered heat tolerance in field flies compared to laboratory flies reared at 25 °C. Flies reared in the laboratory at 13 °C exhibited the same thermal cost-benefit relations as the winter acclimatized flies. We also found a cost of winter acclimatization in terms of decreased egg-to-adult viability at high temperatures of eggs laid by winter acclimatized flies. Based on our findings we suggest that winter acclimatization in nature can induce strong benefits in terms of increased cold tolerance. These benefits can be reproduced in the laboratory under ecologically relevant rearing and testing conditions, and should be incorporated in species distribution modelling. Winter acclimatization also leads to decreased heat tolerance. This may create a mismatch between acclimation responses and the thermal environment, e.g. if temperatures suddenly increase during spring, under current and expected more variable future climatic conditions.     

Growth and development of Australian soldier fly,Inopus rubriceps (Diptera: Stratiomyidae), in New Zealand

Abstract

Larvae of Inopus rubriceps (Macquart) were reared from eggs originating from spring and autumn adult emergence periods (1975–78), under both insectary and field conditions. Rate of development appeared to depend largely on temperature. Autumn-hatched larvae showed little growth for the initial 6 months, but then grew rapidly until the end of summer. Spring-hatched larvae also grew rapidly over summer, but their development slowed over winter. Year-to-year differences were found in larval survival, weight gain, and rate of development, and in subsequent adult emergence. Pest status appeared to be related to the cumulative yearly heat budget. Overall, larval survival was higher and growth and development were more rapid in the insectary than under field conditions. A male-dominant sex ratio was demonstrated.     

Seasonal changes and altitudinal variation in deer fecal pellet decay

Surveying dung pellet groups to estimate population size requires knowledge of the dung decay rates in different environmental conditions. We evaluated seasonal and elevational differences in the decay rates of fresh deer pellets in the Ashio–Nikko Mountains, Japan. At each of four sites (1,500, 1,200, 900, and 600 m above sea level), we set out four replicates of 50 fresh deer pellets each month from September 2008 to August 2009. Dung pellet groups were evaluated after 24 h and again monthly. We also monitored the dung beetle fauna monthly using pitfall traps. Dung beetle activity was positively correlated with temperature, and the rate of dung decay was strongly correlated with dung beetle dry weight. Decay was most rapid during summer and at lower altitudes; pellets set out during winter did not decay until the following spring. Resource managers who use dung surveys to estimate population sizes in mountainous regions should consider the decay rates at different altitudes.     

Effect of temperature on post-wintering development and total lipid content of alfalfa leafcutting bees

Temperature plays an important role in effective management of the alfalfa leafcutting bee [Megachile rotundata (F.); Megachilidae], the major commercial pollinator of seed alfalfa [Medicago sativa (L.); Fabaceae] in North America. To improve our understanding of threshold and optimum rearing temperatures of M. rotundata, we examined the effect of temperature on postwintering development by using a greater number of temperature treatments than applied in previous studies (19 versus eight or fewer) and analytical tools formulated to model nonlinear relationships between temperature and insect development rates. We also tested the hypothesis that rearing temperature influences adult body lipid content at emergence, which could affect adult survival, establishment and performance as a pollinator, and reproductive success. We found that the Lactin-2 and Briere-2 models provided the best fits to data and gave reasonable estimates of lower (16-18°C) and upper (36-39°C) developmental thresholds and optimum (33-34°C) rearing temperatures for maximizing development rate. Bees successfully emerged over a broad range of temperatures (22-35°C), but variation in development rate among individuals reared at the same temperature was lowest at 31-33°C. The optimum rearing temperature to maximize the proportion of body lipids in adults was 27-29°C. Our results are discussed in relation to previous findings and speak to the difficulties in designing practical rearing guidelines that simultaneously maximize development rate, survival, and adult condition, while synchronizing adult emergence with alfalfa bloom.     

Propagation of the Colorado potato beetle [Col.: Chrysomelidae] egg parasiteEdovum puttleri, [Hym.: Eulophidae]

The parasitic wasp,Edovum puttleri Grissell, was successfully reared onLeptinotarsa decemlineata (Say) in the laboratory and increased in sufficient numbers for inoculative release studies in the spring and summer. The effects of temperature on parasite development, and host-parasite ratios in the laboratory are presented. The sex ratio of parasites reared in the laboratory are compared to those released and recovered in the field.     

Seasonal changes in temperature and nutrient control of photosynthesis, respiration and growth of natural phytoplankton communities

1. To investigate the influence of elevated temperatures and nutrients on photosynthesis, respiration and growth of natural phytoplankton assemblages, water was collected from a eutrophic lake in spring, summer, autumn, winter and the following spring and exposed to ambient temperature and ambient +2, +4 and +6 °C for 2 weeks with and without addition of extra inorganic nutrients. 2. Rates of photosynthesis, respiration and growth generally increased with temperature, but this effect was strongly enhanced by high nutrient availability, and therefore was most evident for nutrient amended cultures in seasons of low ambient nutrient availability. 3. Temperature stimulation of growth and metabolism was higher at low than high ambient temperature showing that long‐term temperature acclimation of the phytoplankton community before the experiments was of great importance for the measured rates. 4. Although we found distinct responses to relatively small temperature increases, the interaction between nutrient availability, time of the year and, thus, ambient temperature was responsible for most of the observed variability in phytoplankton growth, photosynthesis and respiration. 5. Although an increase in global temperature will influence production and degradation of organic material in lakes, the documented importance of ambient temperatures and nutrient conditions suggests that effects will be most pronounced during winter and early spring, while the remaining part of the growth season will be practically unaffected by increasing temperatures.     

舟山渔场及邻近海域浮游动物数量分布特征

依据2006年8月(夏)、2007年1月(冬)、5月(春)和11月(秋)在舟山渔场及其邻近海域(29°30′-31°30′N,124°30′E以西)开展海洋生态系统综合调查时,用浅水Ⅰ型浮游生物网采集的浮游动物样本资料,分析了浮游动物总丰度及中华哲水蚤(Calanus sinicus)、精致真刺水蚤(Euchaeta concinna)、百陶箭虫(Sagitta bedoti)、肥胖箭虫(Sagitta enflata)等主要种类的数量分布和季节变化特征。结果表明:调查海域浮游动物平均丰度季节变化明显,春季(555.87ind./m3)夏季(270.87ind./m3)秋季(138.39ind./m3)冬季(127.70ind./m3);其水平分布呈现南部高、北部低的特点。中华哲水蚤为广温广盐种,春季数量最大且分布均匀,大部分海域丰度≥100.00ind./m3;夏季丰度急剧下降,主要分布在30°00′N以南海域;秋、冬季丰度较低,无明显高密集区。精致真刺水蚤为热带种,以夏、冬季丰度较高,主要分布在沿岸水与外海高盐水交汇区和调查海域的南北两端;春、秋季丰度较低且分布均匀。百陶箭虫、肥胖箭虫分别属于暖水种和热带大洋性种,冬、春季丰度都很低,无明显密集区,夏、秋季丰度较大。百陶箭虫主要分布在盐度梯度较大、外海高盐水与沿岸水的交汇区,肥胖箭虫则主要分布在外海高盐水与沿岸水交汇区的靠高温高盐水一侧,其分布与外海高温高盐水的消长有密切关系,可作为暖流指示种。温盐和水系消长变化是影响舟山渔场及邻近海域浮游动物丰度水平分布的重要因素。