A case study of stakeholder perspective and experience with wild American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) conservation efforts in Pennsylvania, U.S.A.: limitations to a CITES driven, top-down regulatory approach

Following its inclusion in Appendix II of Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), the harvest, sale and trade of wild ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) for international commerce has been restricted by law in Pennsylvania since the late 1980s. Since then, exports from the state have declined driving the need to better understand the impact of CITES listing and related state and federal laws. Between 2004 and 2010, we conducted a mixed-methods study in Pennsylvania of stakeholder perspectives on state and federal government conservation efforts and experiences relating to enforcement of harvest and trade restrictions. Results from a survey, key informant interviews, and facilitated group discussions indicate widespread support for ginseng conservation efforts but, not with the CITES driven, top-down regulatory approach. It was widely asserted that ginseng stewardship has been, and will continue to be, governed by personal experience, family teachings, and industry norms and not CITES driven restrictions per se. Moreover, study participants were unable to cite instances where prosecution for ginseng-related “crimes” had occurred within their networks and most believed laws are an ineffective deterrent to “bad behavior.” This emic is externally validated by the fact that agency enforcement is constrained by limited personnel and jurisdictional boundaries, not least of which is an inability to enforce on private lands in the state. These findings suggest that a CITES driven regulatory approach has limitations in actually conserving wild ginseng in Pennsylvania, and suggests that this approach should be complemented by stakeholder supported “bottom-up” partnerships involving greater stakeholder participation, such as government-sponsored or supported ginseng planting programs to counter over-exploitation by collectors and/or extirpation resulting from habitat loss.     

Impact of replanting on regeneration of the medicinal plantNardostachys grandiflora DC. (Valerianaceae)

Commercial collection of alpine medicinal plants in Nepal is widely believed to destroy the resource base. This study explores the impact of three different collection methods on the regeneration of a frequently collected and traded plant species, Nardostachys grandiflora DC (Valerianaceae), listed in CITES Appendix II. The collected product is the plant rhizome from which essential oil is extracted. An experiment with 209 2X2 m plots on both south- and north-facing slopes of a valley in Gorkha District was conducted over two years. Harvesting 100% of the plants in plots followed by replanting of upper plant parts and 2 cm of the rhizome provided the fastest regeneration and rhizome biomass growth.     

Wildlife trade,CITES and the protection of marine molluscs in Indonesia

ABSTRACT

Indonesia is a significant trader in marine molluscs and has a comprehensive legislative framework in place to protect and use molluscs sustainably. The recent inclusion of nautilus in Appendix II of CITES and the general lack of understanding of the level of protection and regulation Indonesia's marine molluscs receive necessitates a review of current laws and agreements. The most relevant are two legally binding international agreements, CITES and the CBD, and Law No 5, and Regulations 8 and 20, dealing with protection, preservation and exploration, respectively. Over the last 30 years, 12 species of mollusc have been legally protected in Indonesia and 7 are included in CITES Appendix II. Species that are not protected can be traded, provided quotas have been set for their commercial exploitation. Seizure data suggest that the illegal trade is considerable – on average almost 10,000 shells/year are confiscated. Seizures do not lead to prosecutions. It is recommended that (a) those involved in the trade of Indonesian marine molluscs need to familiarise themselves better with current legislation and regulation, (b) monitoring of domestic and international trade in marine molluscs needs to be better coordinated and intensified and (c) prosecutions for those trading illegally in marine molluscs need to increase.     

控制野生物国际贸易, 保护地球生物多样性——CITES公约第十八次缔约方大会评述

濒危野生动植物种国际贸易公约(CITES公约)第十八次缔约方大会于2019年8月召开, 审议了56个附录修订提案和140多个工作文件, 延续了近年附录修订趋势, 但减缓了新物种列入附录速度, 明确了附录的适用、解释和执行, 设立了监管新规定, 还采纳了《CITES公约2020后战略愿景》。中国在会上树立了重视生态文明建设的负责任大国的正面形象, 中国提交的5项附录修订提案全部获得通过。     

Revisiting Green Data species lists

The management and active enforcement of the increasing number of conservation-related instruments (e.g. the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), The World Conservation Union (IUCN) Red Data Lists and pending invasive species regulations), and the number of listed plant and animal taxa that they are likely to incorporate, are already straining national regulatory, enforcement and border control agencies. Against the backdrop of increasing capacity constraints (financial and logistic) and uncertainty faced by these authorities, we support calls for a radical shift in the traditional approach to the management of threatened species (either Red Data List or CITES listed) and the maintenance of the integrity of biological systems (viz. the control of potentially invasive species). This entails the establishment of National Green Data Species Lists (proposed by Imboden (1989) in World Birdwatch 9:2). The Green List would be a reciprocal list of species that are not threatened (not Red Data listed), not affected by trade (not CITES listed) or pose little threat of invasion according to importing authorities. This reciprocal list does not require negotiation of new international treaties and will simply piggy-back on existing treaties. In addition, it will shift the 'burden of proof', including the financial investment required for species Green Data listing, the verification of origins, taxonomic and conservation status determination, from regulating authorities to traders.     

‘Skullduggery’: Lions Align and Their Mandibles Rock!

South Africa has legally exported substantial quantities of lion bones to Southeast Asia and China since 2008, apparently as part of the multinational trade substituting bones and body parts of other large cats for those of the tiger in wine and other health tonics. The legal sale of lion bones may mask an illegal trade, the size of which is only partially known. An observed component of the illegal trade is that quantities of skeletons are sometimes declared falsely/fraudulently on CITES export permits. Furthermore, there are emerging concerns that bones from tigers reared in captivity in South Africa and elsewhere are being laundered as lion bones using CITES Appendix II permits. There is therefore a need for tools to monitor the trade in lion body parts and to distinguish between lions and tigers. Our research indicates that it is possible to use skeletons, skulls and cranial sutures to detect misdeclarations in the lion bone trade. It is also possible to use the average mass of a lion skeleton to corroborate the numbers of skeletons declared on CITES permits, relative to the weight of the consolidated consignments stated on the air waybills. When the mass of consolidated consignments of skeletons destined for export was regressed against the number of skeletons in that consignment, there was a strong correlation between the variables (r² = 0.992) that can be used as a predictor of the accuracy of a declaration on a CITES permit. Additionally, the skulls of lions and tigers differ: two cranial sutures of lions align and their mandibles rock when placed on a flat surface, whereas the cranial sutures of tigers are not aligned and their mandibles rest naturally on two contact points. These two morphological differences between the skulls of tigers and lions are easy to observe at a glance and provide a method for distinguishing between the species if illegal trade in the bones is suspected and the skulls are present. These identifications should ideally be confirmed by a DNA test to provide rigorous evidence to prosecute offenders violating CITES regulations.     

The role of Asia in the global trade in CITES II-listed poison arrow frogs: hopping from Kazakhstan to Lebanon to Thailand and beyond

We report on the international trade in South American poison arrow frogs (Dendrobatidae) in the period 2004–2008, and focus on the role of Asian countries. All species of dendrobatid frogs are included in Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), regulating all commercial trade in these species. Based on data compiled in the WCMC CITES database, we establish that >63,000 dendrobatid frogs (of 32 species) were traded internationally. For 21 species the majority of individuals were reported as captive-bred. A quarter to a fifth of the commercial trade in dendrobatid frogs in terms of volume is destined for Asian markets (mainly Japan, Thailand and Taiwan, Province of China). Kazakhstan, the main supplier for the Thai market, is reported as a source country for 16 species, all captive-bred. We found large discrepancies between the reported export of dendrobatid frogs from Kazakhstan—none—and imports reported by Thailand as coming from Kazakhstan (>2,500 individuals). A significant part of the trade flow goes via Lebanon, a non-CITES Party. We urge the CITES Management Authorities of the countries involved to investigate the trade in dendrobatid frogs to ensure it does not violate the rules and intentions of CITES.     

Testing the Effectiveness of an International Conservation Agreement: Marketplace Forensics and CITES Caviar Trade Regulation

Background

The international wildlife trade is a key threat to biodiversity. Temporal genetic marketplace monitoring can determine if wildlife trade regulation efforts such as the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) are succeeding. Protected under CITES effective 1997, sturgeons and paddlefishes, the producers of black caviar, are flagship CITES species.

Methodology/Principal Findings

We test whether CITES has limited the amount of fraudulent black caviar reaching the marketplace. Using mitochondrial DNA-based methods, we compare mislabeling in caviar and meat purchased in the New York City area pre and post CITES listing. Our recent sampling of this market reveals a decrease in mislabeled caviar (2006–2008; 10%; n = 90) compared to pre-CITES implementation (1995–1996; 19%; n = 95). Mislabeled caviar was found only in online purchase (n = 49 online/41 retail).

Conclusions/Significance

Stricter controls on importing and exporting as per CITES policies may be having a positive conservation effect by limiting the amount of fraudulent caviar reaching the marketplace. Sturgeons and paddlefishes remain a conservation priority, however, due to continued overfishing and habitat degradation. Other marine and aquatic species stand to benefit from the international trade regulation that can result from CITES listing.     

DNA barcoding in a biodiversity hot spot: potential value for the identification of Malagasy Euphorbia L. listed in CITES Appendices I and II

The island of Madagascar is a key hot spot for the genus Euphorbia, with at least 170 native species, almost all endemic. Threatened by habitat loss and illegal collection of wild plants, nearly all Malagasy Euphorbia are listed in CITES Appendices I and II. The absence of a reliable taxonomic revision makes it particularly difficult to identify these plants, even when fertile, and thereby compromises the application of CITES regulations. DNA barcoding, which can facilitate species‐level identification irrespective of developmental stage and the presence of flowers or fruits, may be a promising tool for monitoring and controlling trade involving threatened species. In this study, we test the potential value of barcoding on 41 Euphorbia species representative of the genus in Madagascar, using the two widely adopted core barcode markers (matK and rbcL), along with two additional DNA regions, nuclear internal transcribed spacer (ITS) and the chloroplastic intergenic spacer psbA‐trnH. For each marker and for selected marker combinations, inter‐ and intraspecific distance estimates and species discrimination rates are calculated. Results using just the ‘official’ barcoding markers yield overlapping inter‐ and intraspecific ranges and species discrimination rates below 60%. When ITS is used, whether alone or in combination with the core markers, species discrimination increases to nearly 100%, whereas the addition of psbA‐trnH produces less satisfactory results. This study, the first ever to test barcoding on the large, commercially important genus Euphorbia shows that this method could be developed into a powerful identification tool and thereby contribute to more effective application of CITES regulations.     

Possible interpretation problems for the current CITES listing criteria in the context of marine fish species under commercial harvest

The current criteria for listing species on CITES Appendices are summarized briefly. A précis is given of problems with these criteria in a marine species context, as identified by an FAO ad hoc Expert Group meeting in November 1998. Three aspects of the criteria that are of concern to the author are discussed briefly. These are the definition of a "decline," specifications for taking account of uncertainty, and the desirability of using existing stock-recruitment data for marine fish species to estimate the spawning biomass level at which critical depensation might occur. This last would provide guidance in specifying resource levels at which there is a threat of extinction when reformulating the CITES criteria. Received: May 6, 1999 / Accepted: December 11, 1999     

Commercial and ethnic use of lichens in India

The diversity of Indian lichen flora has undergone a considerable decline in the last five decades. Among the various anthropogenic activities, overexploitation and selective removal of economically important lichens have become major threats to the lichen flora of the country. Commercial samples of lichens collected from different states of India were studied for their source and commercial use. Among samples offered for sale, 38 different lichen species were identified. The western Himalayas proved to be the main area for lichen collection, while some lichen species also come from the central and Western Ghats. Local traders coordinate the lichen collection and then sell the material to traders in the foothills, and from there it is processed and distributed to other parts of the country and abroad. Because lichens belonging to the families Parmeliaceae and Physciaceae are the ones most exploited commercially, they are recommended for inclusion in the CITES list.     

National and international regulations governing transportation and supply of primate animals

Import and export of primates is controlled by the Endangered Species Act and the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). Permits are required for all international transactions, and certain primates may not be traded at all for commercial permits.     

Elements for a non-detriment finding of Cedrela spp. in Bolivia—A CITES implementation case study

Cedrela odorata and C. fissilis are two tropical tree species that have been widely harvested for their timber. In response to this heavy exploitation, the species have been listed in Appendix III of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). The aim of this study was to provide important elements necessary for the making of CITES Non-Detriment Findings for Cedrela spp. in Bolivia using a wide variety of sources of information on its distribution, population structure, and management at multiple spatial scales. A national large-scale database of forest inventories was created, including information about trees of certain species with diameter at breast height (dbh) ≥20. These data were used to make non-detriment findings (NDFs) following CITES guidance for timber species. Spatial prediction of Cedrela habitat revealed a consistent pattern of habitat probability across Bolivia. The genus occurs in areas formerly or currently occupied by ten of the twelve forest types described as habitat for Cedrela odorata and C. fissilis, with a density ranging from 0.4 to 159 trees > 60 cm dbh per 100 ha. Based on these data, the annual export quota for Cedrela in Bolivia should be 3513.1 m³ of timber. This country-level case study could provide a roadmap for other studies that may eventually lead to uplisting the genus. Including Cedrela in CITES Appendix II may help to ensure that its harvest to supply international markets is conducted in a sustainable manner, without damaging the target species or their ecosystem.     

The tip of the tail: molecular identification of seahorses for sale in apothecary shops and curio stores in California

Millions of seahorses a year are traded internationally, with many eventually sold at retail shops as curios, as aquarium pets, and especially for use in traditional medicine. The entire genus is now protected by CITES, but conservation measures have been limited in part by difficulties with species identification and incomplete understanding of trade patterns. In this study, we use molecular techniques to make species- and population-level identifications of 56 seahorses sampled from both traditional medicine and curio shops in San Francisco and central California. Seahorses from medicinal sources included unexpectedly large numbers of the eastern Pacific Hippocampus ingens, a species poorly protected by current CITES export recommendations. Curio shops were dominated by H. barbouri, a spiny species that has been reportedly confused in trading records as H. histrix. Specific populations of origin could be inferred for several species through comparison with publicly available phylogeographic data. Our results underscore the strengths and weaknesses of current recommended export regulations, and we suggest that molecular forensics can help in verifying trade documentation and developing more effective conservation measures.     

FAO和CITES公约对水生物种保护管理的异同

FAO和CITES均注重生物多样性保护, CITES通过限制贸易的方式保护生物多样性, FAO则更注重通过科学的渔业管理保障渔业产业的可持续发展。两个组织在水生物种保护管理问题上的管理理念和管理手段各有侧重、互为补充。近年来, FAO和CITES就CITES水生物种管理问题展开了合作, 但合作存在着责任定位交叉、所依据的技术标准不尽统一、CITES部分管理条款在应用上存在较大争议等问题。本文比较分析了FAO和CITES在重要水生物种管理问题上存在着的共性和差异, 旨在为国内水生生物保护管理、政府履约及中国在国际经济活动中维护合法权益提供技术参考和依据。     

Is CITES an effective tool for monitoring trade in corals?

 Despite a legal obligation to do so there is a widespread failure to record coral species on CITES trade permits. The complexity of coral taxonomy and the volume of coral specimens in trade mean that in practice this obligation will never be met, and so it may be sensible to ensure that the identification of genera is as accurate as possible. The accuracy of non-specialists in identifying coral genera using four existing guides was tested experimentally. Only three of ten genera were identified to more than 67% accuracy and none of the guides was ideally suited for coral specimens in trade. A guide designed specifically for this purpose and a change in emphasis under CITES to genera rather than species would therefore improve the effectiveness of CITES in monitoring the international coral trade. Accepted: 11 August 1999     

Changes in the trade of bycatch species corresponding to CITES regulations: the case of dried seahorse trade in Thailand

Exploitation for trade is one of the biggest threats to many species, especially for marine fishes. Trade regulations should, therefore, be effective in helping conserve marine fish populations. The Convention of International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), one of the few multilateral environmental agreements with enforcement capacity, has embraced a number of marine fishes in recent years. However, the impacts of such measures on wildlife trade have rarely been assessed. We conducted a case study of the dried seahorse (Hippocampus spp.) trade in Thailand to understand the trade of these species under CITES regulations. We carried out 203 semi-structured interviews with traders to estimate the economic scale of Thai seahorse trade, and compared perceived changes with official trade datasets. Even though most seahorses were incidentally caught, we estimated that dried seahorses could be worth US$26.5 million per year for Thai fishers. However, the total declared annual export value was only around US$5.5 million, and had decreased to US$1 million in 2013. Considering the economic value of seahorses, the large discrepancy between declared export volumes and catch estimates suggested that trade may be underreported. While official data shows the export volume decreased after the implementation of CITES listing in 2005, our respondents did not report a similar trend. In contrast, the prices of seahorses were reported to be increasing. Our study highlights the economic importance of marine fishes captured as bycatch and the importance of international and domestic management measures for the trade of bycatch species.     

The wild bird trade and African parrots: past,present and future challenges

African parrots are among the most traded of all birds listed on the appendices of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). Collapses in some wild populations due to trapping for the pet trade have highlighted the threats posed by overexploitation. Although over 3.3 million African parrots have been reported in trade since 1975, virtually no monitoring of exploited populations has taken place and basic ecological data do not exist for the majority of traded species. Greater scrutiny of the wild bird trade in Africa would help ensure the practice is compatible with conservation goals as well as minimise biosecurity risks, including the spread of infectious diseases and the establishment of invasive populations.     

《濒危野生动植物种国际贸易公约》与我国遗传资源管理对策

遗传资源是21世纪的战略资源之一, 是当代国际谈判中的热点问题。本文首先分析了《濒危野生动植物种国际贸易公约》(Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora, CITES)的运作机制、该公约涉及的遗传资源管理的条款及其对我国遗传资源管理的影响, 简要回顾了我国在CITES履约与遗传资源方面的立法和管理现状, 指出我国遗传资源管理领域亟待解决管理部门过多、立法不足、缺少明确的对外政策和国家战略、资源本底情况不详、产权划分不清、没有建立有利于野生动植物遗传资源保护与利用的经济调控机制等问题。最后, 我们提出了制定国家战略、建立遗传资源的协调管理机制、将遗传资源保护问题纳入相关法规、开展野生动植物遗传资源状况调查、建立有利于遗传资源保护的经济机制等解决对策。     

列入《濒危野生动植物物种国际贸易公约》附录的物种的新标准

ＣＩＴＥＳ（濒危野生动植物国际贸易公约）是一个通过控制贸易的方法来维护物种生存及其持续利用的国际法规,其附录中所列的物种是重点管理的对象,主要根据现有的Ｂｅｒｎｅ标准来确定。但是,长期的实践证明,它已不能满足实际的需要。１９９２年６月ＣＩＴＥＳ常务委员会要求世界保护联盟协助制定一个简明、实用、科学和客观的新标准,本文对此作一简介和讨论。