Identifying Snake Species Threatened by Economic Exploitation and International Trade in China

It is important to identify endangered species from thousands of species and take conservation measures in time. Many researchers have reported declines and overexploitation of snake species, but it is difficult to identify the species requiring emergency concern. We tried to identify the snake species threatened by economic exploitation in mainland China through the following procedure: First, we identified 16 snake species in significant international trade through analyzing trade records; second, we chose 10 variables representing biological characteristics and economics factors. The values of these variables for each species were evaluated from 0 (minimum risk) to 3 (high risk). Three snake species protected by CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) were also assessed. We then got the priority rank of these species by calculating their average scores. We found that among the species in significant international trade, except those CITES-listed ones, four snake species were at extremely high risk, while all other snake species in significant trade were endangered or vulnerable. Principal component analysis (PCA) was used to classify the species into four groups according to their different biological and economic characteristics. This study provides a possible way to identify endangered species and to rank their conservation priority. The results of this paper can also be used as a priority sequence for taking conservation action, especially trade control measures.     

The effectiveness of botanic garden collections in supporting plant conservation: a European case study

Europe has the greatest concentration of botanic gardens in the world, they cultivate extensive collections of plants that include samples of European threatened plant species. This study looks at the effectiveness of these collections in supporting species conservation. A three part study is presented: (1) the results of a survey and assessment of threatened plants in botanic gardens, as defined by the Bern Convention; (2) case studies illustrating current issues in the ex situ management of European threatened plant species; and (3) presentation of policy recommendations on further improving botanic garden contributions to European plant conservation. The survey indicated that of 119 European botanic gardens in 29 European countries, 105 are cultivating 308 of the 573 threatened plant species listed by the Bern Convention. The survey identified 25 botanic gardens in 14 countries undertaking 51 conservation projects focused on 27 Bern listed species. In particular this survey has established that the majority of taxa are held in a small number of collections, dominated by non-wild origin accessions, and are not adequately documented. The majority of specimens in botanic gardens are cultivated out of the range country and not contributing to a specific conservation project. We review the genetic representation and documentation of origin in collections. Existing plant collections contain representatives of populations, now lost in the wild and maintain samples of at least nine European plant taxa identified as 'Extinct in the Wild'. However, inadequate standards of record keeping has compromised the conservation value of many collections. We highlight the dangers of hybridisation and disease in ex situ collections. The results suggest that botanic garden collections are skewed towards horticulturally robust and ornamental species and do not fully reflect priorities as defined by the Bern Convention. Recognising the limitations of traditional botanic garden collections we propose that botanic gardens more effectively utilise their two core competencies, namely scientific horticulture and public display and interpretation. The unique horticultural skills resident in European botanic gardens could be more effectively utilised through the application of horticulture to the management of wild populations.Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society     

Plant Quarantine as a Measure Against Invasive Alien Species: The Framework of the International Plant Protection Convention and the plant health regulations in the European Union

The introduction of several plant pests into Europe in the 19th century with disastrous consequences called for the development of plant quarantine measures to prevent the spread and introduction of pests of plants and plant products. With the purpose of harmonising these measures, and of promoting measures for pest control, the International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) was developed to address organisms that are both directly and indirectly injurious to plants. It supplies a framework for measures against invasive alien species according to the Convention on Biological Diversity, as far as they are plant pests. Three examples of invasive alien species within the scope of the IPPC are given in the article: the fungus Ceratocystis fagacearum, the pinewood nematode Bursaphelenchus xylophilus and the flatworm Arthurdendyus triangulatus. In its 1997 revision, the IPPC provides for the establishment of International Standards for Phytosanitary Measures, being acknowledged by the Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures of the World Trade Organisation. Standards most important for invasive alien species are those on pest risk analysis, on requirements for the establishment of pest-free areas, on surveillance, on pest eradication programmes, and on the import and release of exotic biological agents. Phytosanitary regulations in the European Union (EU) have been harmonised and up to now have regulated about 300 plant pests. The requirements also have a protective horizontal effect against the unintentional introduction of many other species, but the existing broader IPPC mandate for alien plant pests is not fully applied by the EU regulations. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Genetic distinction of pallid, shovelnose, and Alabama sturgeon: emerging species and the US Endangered Species Act

The sturgeon genus Scaphirhynchus consists of threerecognized species. Pallid and shovelnose sturgeon (S. albusand S. platorynchus, respectively) are sympatric in theMissouri and lower Mississippi Rivers of the central United States. TheAlabama sturgeon (S. suttkusi) is endemic to the nearby MobileRiver drainage and is isolated geographically from the other twospecies. Pallid sturgeon and the extremely rare Alabama sturgeon arelisted as endangered under the US Endangered Species Act (ESA).In contrast, shovelnose sturgeon are relatively common and are notlisted. Despite these taxonomies and morphological evidence, somebiologists have questioned the genetic and taxonomic distinctions of thethree species, thus raising doubts concerning the validity of protectingpallid and Alabama sturgeon under the ESA. To investigate thesequestions, we compared a 436 base-pair sequence of the mitochondrial DNA(mtDNA) control region among the three species. We observed 16 mtDNAhaplotypes defined by 27 single base-pair substitutions (transitions)and one single base-pair insertion/deletion (indel) among 78individuals examined. The maximum sequence divergence among thosehaplotypes (2.06%) was less than values usually observed betweenfish species. However, Alabama sturgeon (n = 3) weredistinguished from the other two taxa (n = 75) by aunique base-pair substitution and haplotype, and pallid and shovelnosesturgeon at their northern range of natural sympatry (upper MissouriRiver) did not share any haplotypes. On the other hand, only frequencydifferences among shared haplotypes distinguished (P < 0.01)pallid and shovelnose sturgeon at their southern range of naturalsympatry (Atchafalaya River), and genetic distances between northern andsouthern localities for each species were nearly as large as thedistances between species. These latter results are consistent withseveral hypotheses, including reports (based on morphology) of putativenatural hybrids in the Atchafalaya River but not in the upper MissouriRiver. Overall, these mtDNA results indicate significant reproductiveisolation between pallid and shovelnose sturgeon in areas of naturalsympatry, and recent evolutionary divergence of Alabama sturgeon. ThesemtDNA results provide the first molecular genetic evidence fordistinguishing the three Scaphirhynchus species and, coupledwith morphological and biogeographic data, indicate that pallid andAlabama sturgeon should be evaluated as distinct species under theESA.     

The Impact of the Law of the Sea Convention on Conflict and Conflict Management in the South China Sea

This article examines the impact of the UN Law of the Sea Convention on conflict behavior and management in the South China Sea during four periods: during its negotiation (1973–1982); from its signing to the entry into force (1982–1994); from then until the China-ASEAN Declaration on the Conduct of Parties in the South China Sea (1995–2002); and from the setting of a timeline for outer limits of continental shelf submissions to the events following the 2009 submissions (2003–2013). Ambiguous effects were found. On the one hand, the Convention has generated or exacerbated conflict by raising the stakes, failing to resolve key legal issues, and encouraging overlapping zone claims. On the other hand, it has provided obligations, language, and techniques for conflict management and resolution. The conflict-enhancing impact was found to have been more substantial than the peace-promoting effects. Nevertheless, the balance has shifted toward more emphasis on conflict management and also some utilization of the Convention's peacemaking potential. If this long-term trend continues and the Convention is more rigorously respected and applied, the Convention may in the end be found to have contributed to regional peace.     

濒危植物水松小孢子发生和雄配子体发育的研究

水松(Glyptostrobus pensilis)是我国特有的单种属孑遗植物,是极度濒危物种,被列为国家一级重点保护植物。为了从生殖生物学方面探讨水松的濒危机制,采用石蜡切片法对水松小孢子发生及雄配子体发育过程进行了系统地观察研究。结果表明:水松雄球花于10月中旬开始分化,11月初小孢子囊壁形成,12月初小孢子母细胞形成,12月中旬减数分裂。翌年1月中旬形成四面体形和左右对称形四分体,1月下旬四分体解体,释放出游离小孢子。2月中旬花粉粒发育成熟,并以二细胞形态进行传粉,散粉期约为2周左右。3月萌发花粉管,3月下旬出现精原细胞、管核和不育核,5月下旬花粉管到达颈卵器顶部,精原细胞分裂成两个精细胞。水松小孢子和雄配子体发育过程中败育和变形现象很少,据此我们认为,水松小孢子发生与雄配子体发育正常,不是致其濒危的主要原因。     

Regulating access to genetic resources under the Convention on Biological Diversity: an analysis of selected case studies

In 1992 parties to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) agreed to develop and implement policies to regulate and facilitate access to genetic resources (AGR). We examine regulations and agreements in Brazil, Colombia, and the Philippines in detail and discuss how these countries are implementing the AGR mandate. In particular, we evaluate progress toward achieving the CBD objectives of conserving biological diversity, using its components in a sustainable manner, and equitably sharing the benefits arising from the use of genetic resources. We highlight the difficulties in developing and implementing these policies, arising from the conflicting goals of regulating and facilitating AGR, as well as the special character of genetic resources, existing ex situ collections, issues of ownership and tenure, and the dearth of legal, institutional, and scientific capacity in many countries. We recommend (1) independent, multidisciplinary evaluation of the success of the access policy in achieving CBD objectives, (2) resolution of the conflict between traditional land tenure and legal property rights of genetic resources so as to match conservation obligations with benefit-sharing rights, (3) recognition that benefits obtained from AGR may be entirely non-monetary, and (4) that countries provide a 'two-track AGR application process separately for commercial and non-commercial users.     

河南大别山区野生珍稀濒危植物资源初步研究

论述了河南大别山区野生珍稀濒危植物资源现状、地理分布和生境特点,分析了珍稀濒危植物产生的原因,提出了保护和开发利用珍稀濒危植物资源相应对策.     

The use of non destructive biomarkers in the study of marine mammals

Marine mammals have been subject to heavy anthropogenic pressure by direct killing and chemical pollution all over the world. Most studies of contamination and biomarker responses in marine mammals have been conducted using animals killed by hunting out of a total of 12 cetacean species studied, 45 of the specimens were obtained by sacrificing the animal; out of a total of eight pinniped species studied, 40 of the specimens were obtained by killing . The development of a series of non destructive techniques to evaluate biomarker responses and residue levels is recommended for the hazard assessment and conservation of endangered species of marine mammals. Here we review the current status of the non destructive biomarker approach in marine mammals, describing the biological materials available for non destructive tests in stranded brain, liver, blood, skin, subcutaneous blubber, muscle and fur and free ranging animals blood, skin biopsy, fur and faeces and the respective biomarker techniques mixed function oxidase activity and DNA damage in skin biopsy samples; porphyrins in faeces and fur; esterases, porphyrins, clinical biochemical parameter, vitamin A and micronuclei in blood samples . Residue analysis can be carried out in the various biological materials. We also report the results of applying this methodological approach to cetaceans minke whale Balaenoptera acutorostrata, fin whale-- Balaenoptera physalus, beluga whale-- Delphinapterus leucas, short finned pilot whale-- Globicephala macrorhynchus, harbour porpoise -- Phocoena phocoena, Rissos dolphin-- Risso s Grampus griseus, Dall s porpoise-- Phocoenoides dalli dalli, melon headed whale-- Peponocephala electra, bottlenose dolphin -- Tursiops truncatus, striped dolphin-- Stenella coeruleoalba, spinner dolphin-- Stenella longirostris, killer whale-- Orcinus orca and pinnipeds northern fur seal- Callorhinus ursinus, hooded seal-- Cystophora cristata, grey seal-- Halichoerus grypus, harbour seal-- Phoca vitulina, ringed seal-- Phoca hispida, harp seal-- Phoca groenlandica, ribbon seal-- Phoca fasciata, largha seal- Phoca largha, southern sea lion-- Otaria flavescens in field studies for prognostic and diagnostic purposes.     

The use of non destructive biomarkers in the study of marine mammals

Marine mammals have been subject to heavy anthropogenic pressure by direct killing and chemical pollution all over the world. Most studies of contamination and biomarker responses in marine mammals have been conducted using animals killed by hunting out of a total of 12 cetacean species studied, 45 of the specimens were obtained by sacrificing the animal; out of a total of eight pinniped species studied, 40 of the specimens were obtained by killing. The development of a series of non destructive techniques to evaluate biomarker responses and residue levels is recommended for the hazard assessment and conservation of endangered species of marine mammals. Here we review the current status of the non destructive biomarker approach in marine mammals, describing the biological materials available for non destructive tests in stranded brain, liver, blood, skin, subcutaneous blubber, muscle and fur and free ranging animals blood, skin biopsy, fur and faeces and the respective biomarker techniques mixed function oxidase activity and DNA damage in skin biopsy samples; porphyrins in faeces and fur; esterases, porphyrins, clinical biochemical parameter, vitamin A and micronuclei in blood samples. Residue analysis can be carried out in the various biological materials. We also report the results of applying this methodological approach to cetaceans minke whale Balaenoptera acutorostrata, fin whale-- Balaenoptera physalus, beluga whale-- Delphinapterus leucas, short finned pilot whale-- Globicephala macrorhynchus, harbour porpoise -- Phocoena phocoena, Rissos dolphin-- Risso s Grampus griseus, Dall s porpoise-- Phocoenoides dalli dalli, melon headed whale-- Peponocephala electra, bottlenose dolphin -- Tursiops truncatus, striped dolphin-- Stenella coeruleoalba, spinner dolphin-- Stenella longirostris, killer whale-- Orcinus orca and pinnipeds northern fur seal- Callorhinus ursinus, hooded seal-- Cystophora cristata, grey seal-- Halichoerus grypus, harbour seal-- Phoca vitulina, ringed seal-- Phoca hispida, harp seal-- Phoca groenlandica, ribbon seal-- Phoca fasciata, largha seal- Phoca largha, southern sea lion-- Otaria flavescens in field studies for prognostic and diagnostic purposes.     

Administrator of global biodiversity: The secretariat of the convention on biological diversity

The paper presents a case study analysing the effects of the Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity as an intergovernmental organisation. Within the study, the effects of organisations are measured by their outcome, i.e. the influence on the behaviour of other actors such as national governments. Three forms of outcomes are being distinguished, namely knowledge brokerage and diffusion, capacity building, and negotiation facilitation. In addition, the paper tries to explain the observed effects on the basis of internal and external variables. The CBD Secretariat has been established in 1992 and is now located in Montreal with about 70 employees. As most other secretariats of international conventions, it is the main organiser and facilitator of the convention process. The empirical material shows that the Secretariat has a measurable influence on the intergovernmental cooperative process which can be attributed to the effective internal management processes and the qualities of its leaders. Lacking capacity building functions and highly selective effects with regard to the provision of knowledge are explained by the limited formal autonomy and the structure of the global biodiversity problem.     

The Seafloor High Issue in Article 76 of the LOS Convention: Some Views from the Perspective of Legal Interpretation

The three categories of the seafloor highs provided for in Article 76 of the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea should be interpreted from the legal perspective and in light of the principle of the natural prolongation. “Oceanic ridges of the deep ocean floor,” which are not part of the natural prolongation of the land territory of the coastal state, are the submarine features that have no geomorphological continuity with the landmass of the coastal state. “Submarine elevations,” which are not only part of the natural prolongation of the land territory of the coastal state but also the natural component of the continental margin, are those submarine features that have geomorphological as well as geological continuity with the landmass of the coastal state. “Submarine ridges,” which are part of the natural prolongation of the land territory of the coastal state but not the natural component of the continental margin, are those submarine features that have geomorphological continuity with the landmass of the coastal state. There are some clear trends as well as obvious variances in the practice of the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf in this regard.     

果蝇nasuta亚群求爱歌的种间识别与进化遗传学研究

果蝇ｎａｓｕｔａ亚群由１４个种、亚种和分类群组成,广泛分布于印度－太平洋区域。本文首次记录了ｎａｓｕｔａ亚群种的求爱歌,测量了脉冲歌时域模式的参数：脉冲串间隔（ＩＢＩ）、脉冲间隔（ＩＰＩ）、脉冲串时间长度（ＰＴＬ）、每个脉冲串的脉冲数（ＰＮ）、脉冲时间长度（ＰＬ）、波动周期时间长度（ＣＬ）。采用计算机声谱分析技术,作出求爱歌信号的三维数字功率谱图,进行频率分析。发现Ｄ．ｐｕｌａｕｎａ和Ｔａｘｏｎ－Ｆ不发出求爱歌声信号,视觉在交配中可能起重要作用。对其余种、亚种和分类群的求爱歌分析表明,ｎａｓｕｔａ亚群种的求爱歌分为脉冲歌和正弦歌。对部分种的正反交Ｆ１求爱歌分析表明,脉冲歌时域参数,如ＩＰＩ平均值为Ｘ染色体连锁或常染色体多基因控制,正弦歌频率偏向母方。根据不同种、亚种和分类群脉冲歌的时域模式构建ｎａｓｕｔａ亚群的系统树,对亚群中不同种、亚种和分类群的亲缘关系进行讨论。     

A Review of the Legal and Policy Framework for Vessel Source Pollution in Hong Kong

Vessel source marine pollution is an increasingly major concern at both the national and international levels. Hong Kong, as an important maritime center, is naturally concerned with vessel source pollution. To meet the challenges, Hong Kong has formulated policies and measures that emphasize “green shipping” as part of an overall planning strategy that promotes a “green economy.” This article provides a review and analysis of Hong Kong's marine pollution laws, with a view toward making policy suggestions. It argues that the general perception of the adequacy of Hong Kong's marine laws in combating vessel source pollution is flawed. It suggests that Hong Kong should adopt a more forward-looking perspective in the formulation of legal measures to control vessel source pollution.     

Shedding light on the hidden costs of the Habitats Directive: the case of hamster conservation in Germany

The EU Habitats Directive provides in Annexes II and IV a list of species that need to be conserved. In response to this obligation, Member States have implemented a variety of conservation measures. These measures include the rejection, modification or delay of land development plans, payments to landowners for implementing conservation measures and management actions such as breeding programmes. The extent of the cost of these various conservation measures is not always apparent. Particularly when land development plans are modified costs are hidden because there is no visible flow of financial resources. This may lead to an underestimation of conservation costs. In contrast, costs which directly lead to a flow of financial resources, such as expenses for management measures, are visible and may be given more attention. This difference in visibility may result in selecting conservation measures with high but hidden costs, whereas conservation measures with low but visible costs are neglected. The first purpose of this paper is to provide a framework that captures, along with the visible costs, the range of hidden costs relevant to the conservation of species protected by the Habitats Directive. The second purpose is to demonstrate the relevance of the problem of hidden costs by means of a case study. We apply the framework to estimate the costs of protecting the common hamster (Cricetus cricetus, listed in Annex IV of the Habitats Directive) in the region of Mannheim, Germany and find that the hidden costs of changes in development plans are higher than the visible conservation costs by at least an order of magnitude.

AFLP Analysis of Genetic Diversity of the Endangered Species Sinopodophyllum hexandrum in the Tibetan Region of Sichuan Province,China

Amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) markers were used to estimate the genetic diversity of seven wild populations of Sinopodophyllum hexandrum (Royle) Ying from the Tibetan region of Sichuan Province, China. Six primer combinations generated a total of 428 discernible DNA fragments, of which 111 were polymorphic. The percentage of polymorphic bands (PPB) was 25.93 at the species level, and PPB within population ranged from 4.91 to 12.38%. Genetic diversity (H _E) within populations varied from 0.01 to 0.04, averaging 0.05 at the species level. As revealed by the results of AMOVA analysis, 58.8% of the genetic differentiation occurred between populations, and 41.2% within populations. The genetic differentiation was, perhaps, due to the limited gene flow (N _m=0.43) of the species. The correlation coefficient (r) between genetic and geographical distance using Mantel's test for all populations was 0.698 (P=0.014). The UPGMA cluster analysis revealed a similar result in that the genetic distances among the populations show, to a certain extent, a spatial pattern corresponding to their geographic locations. On the basis of the genetic and ecological information, we propose some appropriate strategies for conserving the endangered S. hexandrum in this region.