Energetics of the acrobatic courtship in male golden-collared manakins (Manacus vitellinus)

In lek mating systems, females choose mates through indicators of quality, which males may exhibit by their performance of courtship displays. In temperate regions, displaying seasons are brief (one to two months), whereas in the tropics courtship seasons may be prolonged. Moreover, in temperate-breeding animals lekking behaviour can be energetically demanding, but little is known about the energy costs of lekking in tropical animals. Daily, over the course of a nearly seven-month-long breeding season, male golden-collared manakins (Manacus vitellinus) of Panamanian rainforests perform acrobatic courtship displays that markedly elevate heart rates, suggesting that they require high energy investment. Typically, animals of tropical lowland forests (such as manakins) exhibit a ‘slow pace of life’ metabolic strategy. We investigated whether male manakin courtship is indeed metabolically costly or whether the birds retain a low daily energy expenditure (DEE), as seen in other tropical species. To assess these questions, we calibrated manakin heart rate against metabolic rate, examined daily lek activity and, using telemetry, obtained heart rates of individual wild, lekking male manakins. Although metabolic rates peak during courtship displays, we found that males actually invest minimal time (only approx. 5 min d⁻¹) performing displays. As a consequence, the DEE of approximately 39 kJ d⁻¹ for male manakins is comparable to other lowland tropical species. The short, intense bursts of courtship by these birds make up only approximately 1.2% of their total DEE. Presumably, this cost is negligible, enabling them to perform daily at their arenas for months on end.     

Seed dispersal effectiveness of the western lowland gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) in Gabon

The quantitative and qualitative aspects of seed dispersal by the western lowland gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla) were investigated in Gabon. Fresh faeces were collected and washed to identify and count the seeds. Seed germinability after gut passage was estimated with trials in a nursery at the study site. To assess the impact of gut passage on germination success and delay, comparative trials were run with four treatments: (i) gut passed seeds cleaned of faeces, (ii) gut passed seeds within a faecal matrix, (iii) seeds from fresh fruits surrounded by pulp, and (iv) seeds from fresh fruits cleaned of pulp. The analysis of 180 faecal units resulted in the identification of 58 species of seed. Germination trials were realized for 55 species and the mean germination success reached 46%. The impact of gut passage was investigated for Santiria trimera and Chrysophyllum lacourtianum; both species displayed higher germination success after ingestion. This study shows that gorillas effectively disperse seeds of numerous plant species, many of which provide timber or nontimber forest products or are typical of Gabonese forests. Considering the high‐quality of gorilla deposition sites, gorillas is thought to play a unique role in the dynamics of Central African forest.     

Ecological and behavioral consequences of digestion in frugivorous animals

The postingestional effect of seed size and mass and nutrient composition on fruit profitability are reviewed. It is emphasized that profitability results from the interaction between fruit characteristics and the physiological and morphological traits of frugivores. The processes by which frugivores regurgitate or defecate seeds and the differential processing of the nutrient rich pulp and ballast in fruit are strongly dependent on the interaction between frugivore gut morphology and seed size. Euphonias that lack a functional gizzard defecate seeds, whereas tanagers that have a delete a functional gizzards regurgitate seeds. Some frugivores separate seeds from pulp and exocarp in the gizzard. It is hypothesized that the gizzard plays an important role in determining the postigestional fate of different pulp components. Although fruit nutrient content is often invoked as a determinant of frugivore feeding choices, studies that rely on proximal nutrient analysis, have often failed to find clear nutrient composition-preference correlations. It is argued that a partial reason for this failure is that proximal nutrient analysis ignores the complexities of fruit digestion. The ecological and physiological correlates of lipid and sugar assimilation are used to identify the limitations of traditional proximal nutrient analyses in fruit-frugivore studies. We suggest that recognizing the intricacies of the digestive characteristics of frugivores may reveal a much richer patterning in the interaction of frugivores with plants than has been previously hypothesized.     

Avian fruit consumption and seed dispersal in a temperate Australian woodland

Abstract The effectiveness of avian fruit consumers as seed dispersers of fleshy‐fruited plants was studied in a temperate woodland community. As a consequence of the short and overlapping fruiting phenologies of fleshy‐fruited plant species in temperate regions of Australia, there are very few avian species that are true specialist frugivores. The relative importance of bird species as fruit consumers was investigated, and how their foraging activities, movements and gut treatment of seeds affected dispersal of viable seeds away from the parent plant was examined. Fruit consumption and consumer seed dispersal capacity were assessed in this study through faecal analyses and by testing the viability of seeds that had passed through the gut of avian consumers. Behavioural observations enabled us to determine the consumption rates of, and quantities of fruit consumed by, various bird species and the amount of time spent feeding. Silvereyes (Zosterops lateralis) were the dominant fruit consumers in the community, although 19 bird species were either observed consuming fruit or provided faecal samples that contained fruit. Silvereyes had a high local abundance at the site and more than 90% of silvereyes’faecal samples contained the seeds of fruiting plants (n = 409). Large numbers of fruit were consumed per visit by silvereyes, particularly for Rhagodia parabolica (fragrant saltbush). Silvereyes consumed an average of four R. parabolica fruit per 5 s and up to a maximum 40 fruit per visit. Viability was high for seeds recovered from silvereyes’faeces (R. parabolica, 94.4% viable; Hymenanthera dentata, 100% viable). However, the number of seeds per faecal sample was high for R. parabolica, which may result in density‐dependent seed mortality. Gut passage rate for silvereyes fed R. parabolica fruit in captivity was 31.5 ± 1.9 min. Silvereyes remained at fruiting plants for very short periods (average 50‐60 s) and in most cases moved away from the parent plant, primarily toward canopy trees. Given the short visit duration of silvereyes, individuals would have left the parent plant well before seeds passed through the gut. Rhagodia parabolica fruit was consumed by a large number of bird species in the community, including species often thought of as exclusively insectivorous or nectarivorous. These species are likely to disperse viable R. parabolica seeds into microhabitats different from those visited by silvereyes.     

Seed dispersal and predation by Yakushima macaques, Macaca fuscata yakui, in a warm temperate forest of Yakushima Island, southern Japan

The relationships between fruit morphology and the foraging behavior of the Yakushima macaque, Macaca fuscata yakui were studied during a 9-month field study and series of laboratory experiments on Yakushima Island, southern Japan. These relationships may affect seed germination traits through seed dispersal. The macaques foraging behavior was observed in order to obtain data concerning the treatment of pulp and seeds. Seeds in feces and spat seeds were collected and analyzed. A linear discriminant analysis of the data led to the following results: (i) an increase in the relative flesh volume of a fruit was one of the potential factors which increased the probability of seed dispersal by the macaques; and (ii) seed size was an important parameter in relation to the type of seed dispersal (by defecation or spitting out). The germination test was conducted in a laboratory, then the germination rates and delays of dispersed seeds were compared with those of seeds collected directly from trees. The germination of dispersed seeds of Ficus thunbergii, Eurya japonica, and Vaccinium bracteatum, was significantly enhanced by passage through the macaques gut. The enhanced germination behavior was not seen in larger seeds, such as those of Psychotria serpens, Myrsine seguinii, Diospyros morrisiana, and Neolitsea sericea. The germination enhancement in small-seeded plants could be due to a sorting effect from the passage through the gut, which selects seeds with a narrower range of germination traits.     

Introduced galliforms as seed predators and dispersers in Hawaiian forests

In altered communities, novel species’ interactions may critically impact ecosystem functioning. One key ecosystem process, seed dispersal, often requires mutualistic interactions between frugivores and fruiting plants, and functional traits, such as seed width, may affect interaction outcomes. Forests of the Hawaiian Islands have experienced high species turnover, and introduced galliforms, the largest of the extant avian frugivores, consume fruit from both native and non-native plants. We investigated the roles of two galliform species as seed dispersers and seed predators in Hawaiian forests. Using captive Kalij Pheasants (Lophura leucomelanos) and Erckel’s Francolins (Pternistis erckelii), we measured the probability of seed survival during gut passage and seed germination following gut passage. We also examined which seeds are being dispersed in forests on the islands of O’ahu and Hawai’i. We found that galliforms are major seed predators for both native and non-native plants, with less than 5% of seeds surviving gut passage for all plants tested and in both bird species. Gut passage by Kalij Pheasants significantly reduced the probability of seeds germinating, especially for the native plants. Further, larger-seeded plants were both less likely to survive gut passage and to germinate. In the wild, galliforms dispersed native and non-native seeds at similar rates. Overall, our results suggest the introduced galliforms are a double-edged sword in conservation efforts; they may help reduce the spread of non-native plants, but they also destroy the seeds of some native plants. Broadly, we show mutualism breakdown may occur following high species turnover, and that functional traits can be useful for predicting outcomes from novel species’ interactions.

     

Differential passage time of mistletoe fruits through the gut of honeyeaters and flowerpeckers: effects on seedling establishment

McKey's (1975) hypothesis that avian dispersers with a specialized gut provide higher quality seed dispersal than unspecialized frugivores was tested using grey mistletoe (Amyema quandang) fruits, and captive mistletoebirds (Dicaeum hirundinaceum) and spinycheeked honeyeaters (Acanthagenys refogularis) in arid South Australia. Mistletoebirds have a specialized gut, unlike spiny-cheeked honeyeaters. The gut passage time of A. quandang fruits through mistletoebirds was 820±29 s (mean±SE, n=188), compared to 2434±36 s (n=436) for honeyeaters. The seeds defecated by both bird species were deployed on twigs of host trees. Despite the longer retention time of fruit in the gut of honeyeaters, the germination percentage of seeds defecated by mistletoebirds (85% of 485 seeds) and honeyeaters (81% of 485 seeds) did not differ significantly 1 week after deployment. However, after 5 months, a significantly greater proportion of seedlings had established from seeds passed by mistletoebirds (42.7%) than from seeds defecated by honeyeaters (31.1%). The data support the notion that the more gentle treatment of seeds in the gut of specialized dispersers translates into higher seedling establishment.     

Small mammals as potential seed dispersers in New Zealand

Weed invasion success is strongly influenced by availability of seed dispersal vectors, which may include animals. We examined the potential of several small introduced mammals (mice, kiore, ship rats and possums) to disperse germinable seeds in New Zealand. Captive animals were fed fleshy fruit of weeds (Berberis glaucocarpa, Cotoneaster spp., Crataegus monogyna, Ilex aquifolium, Leycesteria formosa, Ligustrum sinense, Lonicera japonica, Passiflora mollissima, Pyracantha angustifolia, Sorbus hupehensis) and native species (Coprosma spp., Prumnopitys ferruginea and Solanum aviculare). We recorded the percentage of fruit consumed, seed ingested and gut passage time. Faeces were collected and the seeds extracted and tested for germination potential in an unheated glasshouse (two weed species) or under controlled conditions (11 species). The smallest rodents (mice and kiore) generally destroyed all seeds eaten. Large numbers of viable seeds of the small‐seeded (<1 mg) species, L. formosa and S. aviculare, passed through ship rats. Possums consumed the seeds of all adventive and native fruits except P. ferruginea. The proportion of seeds recovered intact from possum faeces varied with plant species and ranged from 6 to 83%. The time required for 50% of all seeds to be passed by possums ranged from 2.5 to 5.5 days with an average of 3.7 days, and was generally unrelated to simple fruit parameters such as percentage pulp and moisture content. For seeds where germination also occurred in the uneaten controls, the germination of seed from possums ranged from 3 to 78%. Germination was mostly lower in seeds from possums than in the controls, where differences were significant. Possums have major potential to disperse a wide range of fleshy fruit‐producing native and introduced plant species. Ship rats have the potential to disperse those with very small seeds.     

Does seed ingestion by bats enhance germination? A new meta‐analysis 15 years later

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Effects of gut treatment on recovery and germinability of bovine and ovine ingested seeds of four woody species from the Sudanian savanna in West Africa

Passage rate through the digestive tracts of zebu cattle and sheep, and subsequent germination of egested seeds of four woody species from the Sudanian savanna, Acacia dudgeoni, Acacia seyal, Burkea africana and Prosopis africana, were studied. The result indicates large differences in passage rate among woody species, as well as between animals. The values ranged from 46% to 87% for seeds ingested by cattle while the lowest passage rate was 2.3% and the highest being 74% for seeds ingested by sheep. Among plant species, seeds of Prosopis africana had the highest passage rate through the digestive tract of both cattle and sheep. Seed passage through the gut showed a significant positive correlation with seed mass and thickness for cattle and sheep, respectively. The gut treatment and the retention time in the gut did not improve germination capacity and the speed of germination of dormant seeds. For non-dormant seeds of Acacia dudgeoni, the germination capacity was higher for seeds ingested by cattle than sheep. The speed of germination was also significantly higher for egested seeds than the control. It can be concluded that large herbivores could play an essential role in long distance dispersal of seeds. Gut treatment alone was not effective in breaking seed coat-imposed dormancy, although it enhanced the rate of germination of non-dormant seeds. To get a complete picture of the effect of frugivore on the release of seed dormancy, the combined effect of initial mastication and subsequent gut treatment needs to be investigated.     

Carry-over of enhanced ultraviolet-B exposure effects to successive generations of a desert annual: interaction with atmospheric CO2 and nutrient supply

The performance of fifth generation offspring of a desert annual (Dimorphotheca sinuata DC.) were compared in the absence of UV-B, under variable atmospheric CO₂ and nutrient supply, after four consecutive generations of concurrent exposure of their progenitors to UV-B at ambient (seasonal range: 2.55–8.85 kJ m^–2 d^–1) and enhanced (seasonal range: 4.70–11.41 kJ m^–2 d^–1) levels. Offspring of progenitors grown under elevated UV-B exhibited a diminished photosynthetic rate, a consequence of a reduced leaf density, and diminished foliar levels of carotenoids, polyphenolics and anthocyanins. Conversely, nonstructural carbohydrate and chlorophyll b levels were increased. Altered physiology was accompanied by reduced apical dominance and earlier flowering, features generally considered under photomorphogenic control, increased branching and inflorescence production and greater partitioning of biomass to reproductive structures, but diminished seed production. Many of these changes were magnified under nutrient limitation and intensified under atmospheric CO₂ enriched conditions. The latter disagrees with current opinion that elevated CO₂ may reduce detrimental UV-B effects, at least over the long-term. Observed correlations between seed production and polyphenolic, especially anthocyanin, levels in offspring, and indications of diminished lignification (thinner leaves, less robust stems and fewer lignified seeds set) all pointed to the involvement of the phenylpropanoid pathway in seed formation and plant structural development and its disruption during long-term UV-B exposure. Comparisons with earlier generations revealed trends with cumulative generations of enhanced UV-B exposure of increasing chlorophyll b and nonstructural carbohydrates, decreasing polyphenolics and biomass allocation to vegetative structures, and diminishing seed production despite increasing biomass allocation to reproductive structures. Notwithstanding some physiological compensation (increased chlorophyll b), the accumulation and persistence of these ostensibly inherited changes in physiological and reproductive performance suggest a greater impact of elevated UV-B on vegetation, primary production and regeneration over the long-term than presently envisaged.     

Characterization of microsatellite DNA markers in the white‐bearded manakin (Manacus manacus)

Eight microsatellite DNA markers were isolated and characterized from white bearded manakin (Manacus manacus) using an enrichment cloning procedure. A large number of alleles (range 9–25), and high levels of observed heterozygosity (mean 0.67) were resolved in 236 individuals. No evidence for linkage disequilibrium or the presence of null alleles was found, indicating that these markers will be useful for examining genetic relatedness, parentage and population structure in manakins.     

The role of frugivorous birds in fruit removal and seed germination of the invasive alien Cotoneaster franchetii in central Argentina

Many invasive plant species have fleshy fruits that are eaten by native frugivorous birds which disperse their seeds and may facilitate their germination, playing an important role in plant invasion success. The fleshy‐fruited shrub Cotoneaster franchetii (Rosaceae) is an important invasive alien in the mountainous regions of central Argentina. To determine the role of avian frugivorous in fruit removal of this species, we conducted a frugivore exclusion experiment including bagged and unbagged branches in 75 plants of C. franchetii. At the end of the dispersal period, we compared the percentage of missing fruits (removed by birds + naturally dropped) in unbagged branches with the percentage of naturally dropped fruits in bagged branches. To assess whether any mechanism acting on seeds during their passage through bird guts (de‐inhibition by pulp removal and/or seed scarification) affects seed germination of this species, we compared percentage and speed of germination among seeds obtained from faeces of the native frugivorous Turdus chiguanco, from manually de‐pulped fruits, and from intact fruits. The percentage of missing fruits per shrub in unbagged branches was significantly higher than the percentage of naturally dropped fruits in bagged branches, suggesting that frugivorous birds play an important role in fruit removal of C. franchetii in the study area. Seeds from bird faeces and from manually de‐pulped fruits germinated in higher percentage and faster than seeds from intact fruits. Germination percentage and speed of seeds from manually de‐pulped fruits were significantly higher than those of gut‐passed seeds. These results indicate that T. chiguanco increases and accelerates seed germination of C. franchetii through pulp removal, but not through seed scarification. Overall, our findings indicate that native frugivorous birds facilitate the dispersal and germination success of C. franchetii, likely playing an important role in its invasion throughout the mountainous region of central Argentina.     

Mutualism or opportunism? Tree fuchsia (Fuchsia excorticata) and tree weta (Hemideina) interactions

Mutualisms or interspecific interactions involving net mutual benefits, are an important component of ecological theory, although effectively demonstrating mutualism is notoriously difficult. Among two New Zealand endemics, a slightly elevated germination rate of Fuchsia excorticata (Onagraceae) seeds after passage through tree weta (Orthoptera: Anostostomatidae) compared with seeds manually extracted from fruit, led to the proposal that a mutualistic relationship exists between this plant and animal. An improved germination rate, or any other single trait, however, does not alone constitute evidence for mutualism; the relative costs and benefits of numerous components of the interaction need to be accounted for. We considered the costs and benefits to F. excorticata of the putative seed dispersal mutualism with tree weta. Tree weta provided with F. excorticata fruits destroyed 78% of the seeds they consumed, did not move fruit; and faeces containing seeds were deposited near their roost holes (which are naturally in trees). The seeds remaining after fruit consumption and those that are ingested but survive gut passage are unlikely to be deposited in suitable habitat for seedling survival. Plant food preferences of captive tree weta assessed using pairwise leaf choice tests showed that the leaves of F. excorticata were the least preferred of six commonly encountered plants. In addition, we found that tree weta did not show a preference for F. excorticata fruit over a standard leafy diet, indicating they are unlikely to be actively seeking fruit in preference to other sources of food. These observations indicate that any interaction between tree weta and F. excorticata is likely to be opportunistic rather than mutualistic, and highlight the difficulty of characterizing such interactions.     

Algal Exploitation by Tadpoles — an Experimental Approach

This study examined the exploitation of several species of algae and other organisms by Rana dalmatina larvae, by comparing nutrient contents and pigment degradation of food algae to faeces and changes in larval weight. Tadpoles gained weight when fed Oscillatoria limosa mats collected from the field. The high inorganic content of the Oscillatoria mats, combined with gut peristalsis, may have faciliated the cracking of the tough cell walls. When fed Cladophora and Spirogyra, ash‐free dry weight and protein content of tadpole faeces decreased whilst chlorophyll‐degradation products increased in the faeces relative to the food. With Scenedesmus as food, pigment degradation occurred after gut passage. Tadpoles tended to gain weight when fed Scenedesmus or Aphanizomenon. The epipelic diatoms, Gongrosira, and the planktonic flagellates Cryptomonas and Chlamydomonas were exploited only in traces. Food was better exploited after repeated gut passage, as evidenced by reductions in organic contents, proteins and carbohydrates in the faeces.     

The effect of frugivory on postdispersal seed removal and germination in the pantropical forest tree Antiaris toxicaria Leschenault

The quality of seed treatment by frugivores has an effect on seed removal after dispersal, seed germination and tree recruitment. We provide information on postdispersal seed removal, germination and subsequent recruitment in tropical forest tree species Antiaris toxicaria in Ghana. We tested whether postdispersal seed removal and germination rates were differentially affected by the following seed treatments: seeds that were spat out by monkeys with all fruit pulp removed and spitting seeds with fruit pulp partially removed as observed in some birds and bats. We used seeds of intact ripened fruits as control. Frugivore seed treatment and distance from bole affected seed removal patterns, whereas intact seeds were significantly removed from all seed stations. The germination success was greater for seeds that were spat out by monkeys and poor for seeds with fruit pulp partially removed and intact fruits. More recruits were recorded at the edge of the adult A. toxicaria canopy radius. There was weak relationship (r² = 0.042) between the number of recruits and distance away from the adult tree. Results suggest that the subsequent recruitment in tropical forest tree species may be enhanced by some frugivore fruit‐handling behaviour where fruit pulp is removed from the seeds without destroying the seeds.     

The impact of consumption of fruit by vertebrate and invertebrate frugivores on the germination success of an Australian rainforest seed

Abstract The consumption of fruits by vertebrates and invertebrates can be both advantageous or detrimental to the survival of the seeds they contain. This study investigated the effect of fruit size and consumption of fruit pulp by rodents and beetles on the germination of the seeds of Acmena graveolens, a tropical rainforest canopy tree found in northern Australia. As fruit size increased, germination success and the amount of pulp remaining on the fruits was greater. When beetles were absent, germination success was highest when most of the pulp was removed by rodents, suggesting that they removed an inhibitor of germination. When beetles were present, germination success did not differ significantly across pulp categories, so beetles apparently enhanced germination in seeds with little pulp initially removed, possibly by further removal of fruit pulp. In this study, both rodents and beetles enhanced germination success of A. graveolens seeds by consumption of fruit pulp. Acting as facilitators of germination is a relatively unusual role for both these frugivores that are generally considered to act as seed predators or (in the case of rodents) dispersers.     

Gut passage effect of the introduced red‐whiskered bulbul (Pycnonotus jocosus) on germination of invasive plant species in Mauritius

In Mauritius, many of the worst invasive plant species have fleshy fruits and rely on animals for dispersal. The introduced red‐whiskered bulbul (Pycnonotus jocosus) feeds on many fleshy‐fruited species, and often moves from invaded and degraded habitats into higher quality native forests, thus potentially acting as a mediator of continued plant invasion into these areas. Furthermore, gut passage may influence seed germination. To investigate this, we fed fleshy fruits of two invasive plant species, Ligustrum robustum and Clidemia hirta, to red‐whiskered bulbuls. Gut passage times of seeds were recorded. Gut‐passed seeds were sown and their germination rate and germination success compared with that of hand‐cleaned seeds, as well as that of seeds in whole fruits. Gut passage and hand‐cleaning had significant positive effects on germination of both species. Gut‐passed seeds of both C. hirta and L. robustum germinated faster than hand‐cleaned seeds. However, for L. robustum, this was only true when compared with hand‐cleaned seeds with intact endocarp; when compared with hand‐cleaned seeds without endocarp, there was no difference. For overall germination success, there was a positive effect of gut passage for C. hirta, but not for L. robustum. For both C. hirta and L. robustum, no seeds in intact fruits geminated, suggesting that removal of pulp is essential for germination. Our results suggest that, first, the initial invasion of native forests in Mauritius may not have happened so rapidly without efficient avian seed dispersers like the red‐whiskered bulbul. Second, the bulbul is likely to be a major factor in the continued re‐invasion of C. hirta and L. robustum into weeded and restored conservation management areas.     

Seed cleaning behavior by tropical ants and its anti-fungal effect

In tropical forests, ants frequently consume fruit pulp around seeds of vertebrate-dispersed plants, which protects the seeds from infection by fungus and pathogens. Seed cleaning behavior by omnivorous ants was observed in the secondary forests of Bogor botanical garden in West Java. Fruit pulp around the seeds of the rambutan Nephelium lappaceum was completely removed by Pheidole plagiaria, Anoplolepis gracilipes, and other ants. When seed cleaners were excluded, however, many seeds were attacked by fungus and died. Seeds that were cleaned by hand, but not by ants, were similarly attacked. Field experiments on seed cleaning by P. plagiaria revealed that the anti-fungal effect was not merely caused by removal of fruit pulp, and that seed cleaning reduced the development of spores and hypha of fungi. We suggest that the workers apply anti-fungal substances to the fruit pulp and seed surface.     

Lipoxygenase inhibition by novel fatty acid ester from Annona squamosa seeds

Studies on the seeds of Annona squamosa yielded a novel lipoxygenase inhibitor fatty acid ester, (+) - annonlipoxy (1). Compound 1 was screened for its enzyme inhibitory activity against lipoxygenase (E.C.1.14.18.1), exhibiting activity with IC₅₀ 69.05 ± 5.06 μm. Baicalein (IC₅₀ 22.6 ± 0.5 μm) was used as a positive control. Crude extracts of Annona squamosa fruit pulp and seeds were screened for its enzyme inhibitory activity against lipoxygenase and acetylcholinesterase. The crude ethanolic extract of fruit pulp and seeds of Annona squamosa also exhibited lipoxygenase activity with 22.2 and 26.7% inhibition, while the pet.ether extract of seeds of A. squamosa exhibited 52.7% inhibition at a concentration of 40 μg/200 ml. The crude ethanolic extract of seeds of Annona squamosa was also bioassayed for acetylcholinesterase inhibition and it was found inactive.