beta-Endorphin augments the cytolytic activity and interferon production of natural killer cells

We have investigated the in vitro effects of the neurohormone beta-endorphin (b-end) on natural killer (NK) activity and interferon (IFN) production mediated by large granular lymphocytes (LGL). LGL-enriched fractions from peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) from normal human volunteers were obtained by fractionation over discontinuous Percoll gradients. LGL were preincubated with or without various concentrations of b-end or the closely related peptides alpha-endorphin (a-end), gamma-endorphin (g-end), or D-ALA2-beta-endorphin (D-ALA2-b-end), a synthetic b-end analogue. NK activity was assayed on 51Cr-labeled K562 target cells. Preincubation of LGL effectors (but not K562 targets) for 2 to 18 hr with concentrations of b-end between 10(-7) M and 10(-10) M produced significant augmentation of NK cytolytic activity (mean percentage increase: 63%). The classic opiate antagonist naloxone blocked the enhancing effect when used at a 100-fold molar excess relative to b-end. Neither a-end nor g-end could augment NK activity, whereas D-ALA2-b-end produced an enhancement comparable with that produced by b-end. In addition, incubation of LGL with b-end in the presence of phytohemagglutinin or poly I:C significantly augmented IFN production. These findings demonstrate that b-end enhances NK activity and IFN production of purified LGL, and suggests that b-end might bind to an opioid receptor on LGL that can be blocked by naloxone. These results lend support to the concepts of regulation of the immune response by neurohormones and the functional relationship between the nervous and immune systems.     

Tyrosine phosphorylation of the Fc gamma RIII(CD16): zeta complex in human natural killer cells. Induction by antibody-dependent cytotoxicity but not by natural killing.

NK cells are large granular lymphocytes capable of killing certain tumor cells and virally infected cells in a non-MHC-restricted manner. NK cells can also effect an antibody dependent cytotoxicity that is triggered by CD16, an FcR for IgG. In NK cells, CD16 is expressed in association with zeta, a signal transducing subunit of the TCR complex. Here we show that, just as T cell activation via the TCR complex results in tyrosine phosphorylation of zeta TCR, NK cell activation via CD16 results in tyrosine phosphorylation of zeta NK. Whereas antibody-dependent cytotoxicity also results in tyrosine phosphorylation of zeta, natural cytotoxicity does not. Our results indicate that zeta functions as a transducing element for antibody dependent, but not antibody independent killing by NK cells. Consequently, NK cells are likely to express at least two distinct receptor complexes capable of triggering cytolytic effector function.     

Expression of CD16, CD18 and CD56 in tributyltin-exposed human natural killer cells

Tributyltin (TBT) was produced in large quantities for use in wood preservation, marine antifouling paints, disinfection of circulating industrial cooling waters and slime control in paper mills. TBT is found in dairy products, meat and fish. We and others have shown that there are measurable levels of TBT in human blood. BTs appear to increase the risk of cancer and viral infections in exposed individuals. In previous studies, we demonstrated that the NK-cytotoxic function of lymphocytes was greatly diminished after a 1-h exposure to 300 nM TBT or a 24-h exposure to 200 nM TBT. Inhibition induced by a 1-h exposure to 300 nM TBT continues even after removal of the compound. There is also decreased ability of NK cells to bind to tumor target cells when they have been exposed to 200 nM TBT for 24 h. This loss of binding function is not seen when NK cells are exposed to 300 nM TBT for 1 h. However, NK cells exposed to 300 nM TBT for 1 h and then incubated in TBT-free media for 24, 48 or 96 h, show a significant loss of tumor-binding function by 96 h. The effects of TBT on cell surface molecules that are crucial to NK cell function is investigated. The data indicate there is a loss of expression of CD16 and CD56 on NK cells exposed to 200 nM TBT for 24 h. There is no decrease in expression of any of the markers studied when NK cells are exposed to 300 nM TBT for 1 h, consistent with the fact that a 1-h exposure has no effect on the ability of NK cells to bind to tumor targets. However, when NK cells are exposed to 300 nM TBT followed by 24, 48 or 96 h incubations in TBT-free media, there is a significant loss of CD16 and CD18 expression after 24 h and of CD16 and CD56 expression after 48 and 96 h.     

Glycosylation affects ligand binding and function of the activating natural killer cell receptor 2B4 (CD244) protein

2B4 (CD244) is an important activating receptor for the regulation of natural killer (NK) cell responses. Here we show that 2B4 is heavily and differentially glycosylated in primary human NK cells and NK cell lines. The differential glycosylation could be attributed to sialic acid residues on N- and O-linked carbohydrates. Using a recombinant fusion protein of the extracellular domain of 2B4, we demonstrate that N-linked glycosylation of 2B4 is essential for the binding to its ligand CD48. In contrast, sialylation of 2B4 has a negative impact on ligand binding, as the interaction between 2B4 and CD48 is increased after the removal of sialic acids. This was confirmed in a functional assay system, where the desialylation of NK cells or the inhibition of O-linked glycosylation resulted in increased 2B4-mediated lysis of CD48-expressing tumor target cells. These data demonstrate that glycosylation has an important impact on 2B4-mediated NK cell function and suggest that regulated changes in glycosylation during NK cell development and activation might be involved in the regulation of NK cell responses.     

IL-15-induced IL-10 increases the cytolytic activity of human natural killer cells

Interleukin 10 (IL-10) is a multifunctional cytokine that regulates diverse functions of immune cells. Natural killer (NK) cells express the IL-10 and IL-10 receptor, but little is known about the function of IL-10 on NK cell activation. In this study, we show the expression and role of IL-10 in human NK cells. Among the cytokines tested, IL-15 was the most potent inducer of IL-10, with a maximal peak expression at 5 h after treatment. Furthermore, IL-10 receptor was shown to be expressed in NK cells. IL-10 alone had a significant effect on NK cytotoxicity which additively increased NK cell cytotoxicity in the presence of IL-15. Neutralizing IL-10 with anti-IL-10 antibody suppressed the inductive effect of IL-10 on NK cell cytotoxicity; however, IL-10 had no effect on IFN-γ or TNF-α production or NK cell activatory receptor expression. STAT signals are implicated as a key mediator of IL-10/IL-15 cytotoxicity response. Thus, the effect of IL-10 on NK cells is particularly interesting with regard to the STAT3 signal that was enhanced by IL-10 or IL-15.     

Rat hepatic natural killer cells (pit cells) express mRNA and protein similar to in vitro interleukin-2 activated spleen natural killer cells

To address how FasL-expressing tumors induce neutrophil emigration and abrogate tumorigenicity, we investigated the behavior of FasLcDNA-transfected hepatoma MH134 (G2) cells injected into wild-type (+) mice, lpr(cg)/lpr(cg) (lpr(cg)) mice with death domain (DD)-mutated Fas, and gld/gld lpr/lpr (gld/lpr) mice with defects in FasL/Fas. G2 cells were eradicated after extensive infiltration of neutrophils around them in + mice but formed tumors without such infiltration in lpr(cg) and gld/lpr mice. Abundant cell debris suggestive of apoptosis of infiltrating neutrophils was found among G2 tumor cells in + mice but a few neutrophils infiltrating among G2 cells were intact in lpr(cg) and gld/lpr mice. Collectively, these results indicate the crucial role of Fas DD in Fas-mediated apoptosis of neutrophils and suggest that apoptosis of neutrophils with FasL-expressing tumors may trigger the extensive infiltration of neutrophils, resulting in violent inflammation and ultimately in the eradication of tumor cells.     

Phenotypic and cytolytic activity of Macaca nemestrina natural killer cells isolated from blood and expanded in vitro

Natural killer (NK) cells from nonhuman primates have not been completely characterized, and methods for expanding nonhuman primates NK cells in vitro have been described only in rhesus species. The purpose of this report was to characterize NK cells in pigtail macaques (Macaca nemestrina), a species that is frequently used in studies of transplantation biology/immunology, virology, vaccine development, and reproductive biology. NK cells from Macaca nemestrina peripheral blood were best defined by the expression of CD16 and CD8alpha, and the absence of CD3. Subsets of these cells express CD56, NKp30, and NKp46. An enhanced ability to kill K562 cells was not present in fluorescence activated cell sorted (FACS)-purified CD16-/CD3+ and CD16-/CD56+ cells isolated from fresh peripheral blood. However, FACS-purified CD16+/CD3- and CD16+/CD56- cells were highly efficient killers of K562 cells. Macaca nemestrina NK cells can be expanded by in vitro culturing of FACS-purified CD16+/CD2-/CD3-/CD56- cells, or from peripheral blood cells depleted of cells expressing CD3, CD4, and HLA-DR. Cells in these cultures expand 70-fold after 21 days of culturing. After culturing, these cells express high levels of natural cytotoxicity receptors (NCRs) NKp30 and NKp46. NK cell populations obtained from FACS-purified CD16+/CD3-, CD16+/CD56- cells and CD3/CD4/HLA-DR-depleted cells were highly efficient killers of K562 cells. These data suggest that a population of highly enriched cytolytic NK cells can be obtained from purified CD16+/CD3- and CD16+/CD56- cells obtained from peripheral blood, as well as from cells that have been cultured and expanded from peripheral blood that is depleted of CD3/CD4/HLA-DR-expressing cells.     

Role of CD16 (Fc receptor III) and interleukin-2 in the reactivation of natural killer cells after inhibitory target cell contact.

Contact with natural killer (NK)-resistant monolayer targets is an inhibitory signal to NK cells. In this study, we have analyzed the effect of such effector/target cell interactions on the CD16 (FcRIII) expression on lymphocytes and the role of CD16 and interleukin-2 (IL-2) in the reactivation of their cytolytic machinery. Coculturing peripheral blood mononuclear cells with NK-resistant monolayer cells did not change the percentage of CD 16-positive effector cells, although this treatment effectively inhibited their cytotoxicity against NK-sensitive targets. The inhibited effector cells partially regained their activity by incubating for 24 h in medium supplemented with 10% fetal calf serum (FCS), whereas human albumin-, newborn calf serum- or human AB serum-supplemented media had no reactivating effect. Monoclonal class IgG1, IgG2a and IgM anti-CD16 antibodies [Abs; 3G8, CLB-CD16 (CLB-FcR gr1) and Leu 11b], and normal rabbit IgG (NR-IgG) prevented the FCS-mediated reactivation of cytotoxicity, whereas nonreactive control Abs significantly enhanced it. The detection of the CD16 antigen by the monoclonal anti-CD16 Abs Leu 11a and Leu 11c was blocked by the above anti-CD16 Abs and NR-IgG, while the expression of other NK cell-associated surface molecules (CD2, CD56) remained unchanged. Mere blocking of CD16, using a short-term incubation with anti-CD16 Abs, had an insignificant effect on endogenous NK activity, suggesting that CD16 is involved in NK cell (re)activation rather than in the killing process itself. In the presence of IL-2, inactivated effector cells also regained their killing activity. The IL-2-induced reactivation was not inhibited by anti-CD16 Abs. The results suggest that FCS-derived factors and soluble nonreactive immunoglobulins enhance the NK activity of down-regulated effector cells via CD16, and that CD16 and IL-2 receptors represent alternative independent pathways of NK cell reactivation.     

Monocyte-induced down-modulation of CD16 and CD56 antigens on human natural killer cells and its regulation by histamine H2-receptors.

Human natural killer (NK) cells carry CD16/FcR and CD56 cell-surface Ag but lack the T-cell marker CD3. Here we show that incubation of resting human NK cells with CD3-/16+/56+ phenotype with autologous monocytes induced the disappearance of CD16 and CD56 cell-surface Ag on NK-cells but did not affect CD2 or CD3 Ag expression on T-cells. Monocyte-induced down-modulation of NK-cell-surface Ag was cell-contact dependent and induced only by freshly isolated monocytes, recovered from peripheral blood by counter-current centrifugal elutriation. Adherence of monocytes abrogated the capacity to induce down-modulation of NK-cell-surface Ag. The biogenic amine histamine dose-dependently reversed the monocyte-induced down-modulation of CD16 and CD56 on CD3- NK-cells. The effect of histamine was mediated by H2-type receptors on monocytes. The data presented are suggestive of a cell-cell-mediated interaction between monocytes and NK-cells which modulates surface expression of NK-cell Ag and its histaminergic regulation.     

The cytolytic and regulatory role of natural killer cells in experimental neoplasia

NK cells are defined here as cells, other than macrophages and polymorphonuclear leucocytes, from non-immunized animals (or humans) which are cytotoxic for neoplastic and non-neoplastic targets in the absence of specific antibody. Though not requiring antibody, they may function as K cells in ADCC. This definition includes cells activated nonspecifically by such agents as IFN and IL-2. Murine NK cells may be subdivided into two types by differences in the kinetics of target-cell lysis. Those we label Type 1 correspond roughly to what others have called NKA, NKL or simply NK cells; those of Type 2 to NKB, NKS and NC cells. Type 1 cells express various antigens, including NK-1, Thy-1 (50%), Ly-1 (25%), Qa-3, Qa-4, Qa-5, Ly-5, Ly-6, Ly-10, Ly-11 and asialo-GM1, not expressed by Type 2 cells, whereas Mac-1 may be expressed by both types. At least some NK cells appear to be pre-thymic cells which, in the presence of a thymus, can differentiate into T cells. The level of NK activity is influenced by the age and genetic background of the mouse, the organ from which the cells are obtained, and a variety of experimental manipulations. Type 1 activity is increased by IFN and IL-2; Type 2 activity by IL-3. IFN appears to be concerned in the development of spontaneous NK activity in young mice. Many experiments have shown that NK cells may inhibit the growth of tumours which are sensitive to NK cells of the same type in vitro. Inhibitory cells which suppress NK activity may play an important regulatory role in vivo. There is still uncertainty about how NK cells recognize their targets. Possibilities discussed are: (1) specific interacting molecules; (2) more diffuse properties of target cell membranes; (3) absence of MHC-coded self-recognition markers. Certainly, the presence of a Class 1 MHC molecule is not necessary. NK killing appears to be mediated by cytotoxins released by NK cells. In vivo, NK cells contribute to limiting the development of transplanted and primary tumours, and metastasis from established tumours. NK cells seem well qualified to act as a first-line defence against neoplasia, and may kill cells not killed by T cells. Transfer of NK cells may be of value in the treatment of cancer.     

Functional and biochemical analysis of CD16 antigen on natural killer cells and granulocytes

CD16 Ag is associated with the low affinity FcR for IgG expressed on human NK cells and granulocytes. In this study, we demonstrate that NK cells specifically lyse murine anti-CD16 hybridoma cell lines, but do not lyse hybridomas against other cell surface differentiation Ag expressed on NK cells. Moreover, the CD18 structure is involved in the CD16-specific xenogeneic interaction between human effector cells and murine hybridoma target cells. Although interaction with anti-CD16 hybridomas or antibodies triggers the cytolytic mechanism of NK cells, this interaction does not induce cellular proliferation. In contrast to NK cells, CD16+ granulocytes do not lyse anti-CD16 hybridoma cell targets and do not mediate ADCC against antibody-coated human tumor cell targets. These findings indicate a fundamental difference in the antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity mechanisms of NK cells and granulocytes. Comparative biochemical analysis of CD16 on NK cells and granulocytes revealed significant differences in the size of the polypeptides obtained after removal of N-linked carbohydrate residues with endo-F and N-glycanase digestion.     

T11/CD2 activation of cloned human natural killer cells results in increased conjugate formation and exocytosis of cytolytic granules

The T11 (CD2) antigen has been found to be an alternate pathway for antigen-independent activation of resting T cells. T11 triggering also results in activation of NK cells and enhancement of their cytolytic function. The present studies were carried out to further define the mechanisms whereby cytotoxicity is enhanced after T11 activation. A series of clonal human NK cell lines were analyzed after incubation with monoclonal anti-T112 and anti-T113 antibodies specific for different epitopes of the CD2 protein. Anti-T112/3 triggering resulted in increased cytotoxicity against a variety of target cells. Similar results were obtained with F(ab')2 fragments of anti-T112/3, indicating that this effect was not mediated through binding of FcR. The induction of cytotoxicity was found to be associated with increased formation of effector cell-target cell conjugates and with release of secretory granule-localized 35S-labeled proteoglycans. Both enhanced conjugate formation and cytotoxicity could be blocked by anti-lymphocyte function-associated antigen (LFA-1) mAb. Ultrastructural analysis of NK cells after T11 activation demonstrated increased adherence of effector cells to targets and other NK cells as well as a directional reorientation of cytoplasm and intracellular granules toward the area of contact between cells. Discharge of granules occurred into pockets bounded by closely apposed plasma membranes. In the presence of anti-LFA-1 and anti-T112/3, the close apposition and formation of pockets between effector cells and target cells did not occur but the cells exocytosed their intracellular granules. T11 activation of NK cloned cells also resulted in the formation of the homotypic conjugates and autocytotoxicity. As seen with resistant allogeneic targets, autocytotoxicity was mediated by F(ab')2 fragments of T112/3 antibodies and could be blocked by anti-LFA-1 antibody. Ultrastructural analysis of NK cloned cells after T11 activation confirmed the presence of homotypic conjugates with reorientation of effector cells toward one another and discharge of cytolytic granules into pockets formed between NK cloned cells. Taken together, these results indicate that T11-induced cytolytic function of NK cells is, in part, mediated through increased binding of effector cells and targets and that enhanced conjugate formation is at least in part mediated by the LFA-1 antigen. In addition, T11 activation results in the triggering of the cytolytic mechanism of NK cells and the exocytosis of cytolytic granules and their constituents.     

Suppression of natural killer (NK) cell activity of spleen cells by thymocytes

The in vitro influence of thymus cells on natural killer cell activity of spleen cells against prelabeled target cells (YAC-I and RL♂I) has been studied in syngeneic as well as in allogeneic murine models. In mixing experiments to demonstrate suppression, total thymocytes have been found to have no effect on NK activity of syngeneic or allogeneic spleen cells. Among several thymocyte fractions separated by velocity sedimentation, a relatively faster sedimenting fraction showed remarkable suppression of NK activity by spleen cells against two target cells. The suppressive effect of this particular fraction on NK activity was demonstrated to be proportional to the cell dose. The suppressive function was resistant to irradiation at 1000 or 2000 rad administered in vitro and was not restricted by the major histocompatibility complex. Moreover, the thymocyte fraction which induced suppression was not sensitive to NK-mediated cytolysi? by syngeneic spleen cells. The suppression of NK cytolysis in vitro by certain subpopulations of thymocytes as observed in the present studies may be consistent with a role for the thymus in regulating NK activity in vivo.     

Purification and characterization of a cytolytic pore-forming protein from granules of cloned lymphocytes with natural killer activity

A cytolytic pore-forming protein (PFP, perforin) was purified from isolated granules of cloned NK-like cytolytic cells, which showed an apparent Mr of 70-75 kd (reduced) and 62-66 kd (nonreduced). Cytolysis produced by this protein occurred only in the presence of Ca2+ and was accompanied by the formation of membrane lesions of 160 A diameter. The purified protein depolarized cells and made lipid vesicles leaky to monovalent and divalent ions. This protein formed large, voltage insensitive and nonselective ion channels in planar bilayers that remained preferentially in the open state. The channels were heterogeneous in size distribution averaging 400 pS/U in 0.1 M NaCl. The membrane lesions formed by PFP were morphologically and functionally similar to those formed by intact NK-like cells and their granules. This PFP could be released from granules during cell killing, followed by its polymerization on target membranes to form large transmembrane pores.     

Inhibition of human natural killer (NK) activity by calcium channel modulators and a calmodulin antagonist

The presence of calcium (Ca2+) in the culture medium is a requirement for the NK cytotoxic reaction. To further explore the role of Ca2+ and calmodulin (a cytoplasmic protein that mediates most of the biological effects of Ca2+) in this process, we evaluated the effects of nifedipine (a Ca2+ channel antagonist), BAY-K-8644 (a Ca2+ channel agonist), and haloperidol (an inhibitor of calmodulin) on the NK activity of human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC), and the augmentation of this activity by recombinant interleukin 2 (r-IL 2) and interferon-gamma (r-gamma-IFN). We found that all of these drugs inhibit NK activity in a dose-dependent fashion. This appears to result from interference with the programming for lysis stage of the lytic process. In contrast, the presence of these agents during the incubation of PBMC with r-IL 2 or r-gamma-IFN did not induce any change in the enhancement of NK activity. These data suggest that Ca2+ exerts its effect at the intracellular level during the NK cytotoxic process, and that the augmentation of NK activity by lymphokines is independent of the calcium-calmodulin system.     

Induction of natural killer cell activity in mice by injection of indomethacin

The natural killer (NK) cell system of mice in the peritoneal cavity is of very low to undetectable activity, and testing peritoneal NK cells is a useful model to study the influence of activating substances upon local injection. Injection of indomethacin at doses of 100-400 micrograms/mouse caused a marked activation of NK cell activity which was maximal at 3 days and lasted for a total of 6 days. A similar albeit less marked effect was observed with other cyclooxygenase inhibitors such as aspirin. Prostaglandin E2 reversed the activation of NK cells induced by injection of indomethacin. The cellular count of the peritoneal population was 2-fold elevated after indomethacin injection but the percentage of macrophages in the washed-out cell population was decreased from 60% (controls) to around 20%. The NK cell nature of the effector cells activated by indomethacin was substantiated by the finding that previous injection of anti-asialo GM1 antibody prevented activation. Interferon could not be detected in the peritoneal wash fluid after injection of indomethacin, suggesting interferon-independent activation. However, the possibility of small interferon quantities being locally produced could not be excluded. In further experiments we found after intraperitoneal injection of indomethacin not only cells that killed YAC-1 targets in a 4-hour assay but also killer cells that were insensitive to anti-asialo GM1 and killed P815 cells in an 18-hour assay. We assumed that these were macrophages and have done further experiments with in vitro grown bone-marrow-derived macrophages. These could be activated for killing of P815 targets by the addition of indomethacin, but (to a lesser degree) also for killing of YAC-1 lymphoma cells.     

Regulation of cytolytic activity in CD3- and CD3+ killer cell clones by monoclonal antibodies (anti-CD16, anti-CD2, anti-CD3) depends on subclass specificity of target cell IgG-FcR

Anti-CD3 MAb can inhibit MHC-restricted cytolytic activity of CD3+ mature cytotoxic T cells. In particular effector-target cell combinations, however, anti-CD3 MAb enhance or induce cytolysis by cross-linking CD3+ effector and IgG-FcR+ target cells. Virtually all natural killer (NK) cells or NK cell-derived clones are CD3-4-8- but do express CD2 and CD16 (IgG-FcR) antigens. We have studied how these cell surface molecules are involved in the regulation of cytolytic activities. The addition of anti-CD2 MAb to effector and target cells was found to induce conjugate formation of the IgG-FcR+ target cells with the effector cell and nonspecific cytolysis of, for instance, the P815 mouse mastocytoma cells. Enhancement or induction of conjugate formation and cytolysis of IgG-FcR+, P815, U937, and Daudi cells was also accomplished by using anti-CD16 MAb (e.g., Leu-11c (B73.1) or CLB Fc-gran 1 (VD2) MAb). Some human and mouse tumor cell lines (K562, P815, and U937) appear to express distinct types of IgG-FcR, showing different affinities for distinct subclasses of MAb (e.g., IgG1, IgG2a), but another line (Daudi) expresses only one type of IgG-FcR preferentially binding IgG1 MAb. Here we demonstrate that IgG-FcR on the effector cells can act as activation sites because anti-CD3 as well as anti-CD16 MAb of IgG1 and IgG2a subclasses can induce lytic activity of target cells bearing the relevant IgG-FcR. These data demonstrate that induction of conjugate formation and cytolysis by MAb occur when the target cells bear IgG-FcR with "specificity" for those MAb. Thus, besides via CD3, cytolytic activity by mature T and NK cells also can be induced via the CD2 and CD16 antigens on these cells.     

Adherent lymphokine-activated natural killer cells in normal and severe combined immunodeficiency mice: large granular lymphocytes with natural killer cell phenotype and high cytolytic activity

Plastic-adherent lymphokine-activated natural killer (LANK) cells were generated from nylon wool-nonadherent murine splenocytes cultured in recombinant interleukin-2 (IL-2). Under such conditions, adherent lymphokine-activated killer cells capable of killing natural killer (NK)-resistant targets were not generated. Adherent LANK cells proliferated rapidly and closely resembled NK cells in their morphology, cytotoxic reactivity, and surface marker expression. Mice with severe combined immunodeficiency (scid) were used to generate adherent LANK cells to define the role of T cells in LANK cell development. Scid lymphocytes responded to IL-2 by becoming adherent LANK cells with potent NK-like activity, suggesting that soluble lymphokines other than IL-2 that may have been produced by T cells were not required for the generation of LANK cell activity in mice.     

Characterization of the cytolytic reaction mechanism of the human natural killer (NK) lymphocyte: resolution into binding, programming, and killer cell-independent steps

Various parameters of the cytolytic reaction mechanisms of the human natural killer (NK) lymphocyte were studied to characterize the lytic cycle. NK cytolysis was determined to occur in three definable steps. 1) Binding of PBL to the NK-sensitive targets Molt-4 or K562 was rapid (less than 1 min), occurred at temperatures below 37 degrees C, was Mg++3-dependent, Ca++3-independent, and was prevented by dispersion of the cells into 10% dextran. 2) Subsequent to binding, programming for lysis as determined by a Ca++ pulse method was more protracted, requiring up to 2 hr to occur and was strictly dependent on Ca++ for cytolysis to proceed. In standard cytotoxicity assays, however, programming for lysis was more rapid occurring in 10 to 30 min. Programming was inhibited by EDTA, EGTA/Mg++ and by temperatures below 37 degrees C. Furthermore, after binding but in the absence of initiation of programming for lysis, the frequency of target binding cells did not change and the NK cell did not lose its lytic potential. 3) Killer cell-independent cytolysis (KCIL) was determined by the addition of EDTA to "programmed" targets and dispersion of these cells into dextran-containing medium, which resulted in virtually 100% dissociation of conjugated cells. KCIL was Ca++ and Mg++-independent and was blocked at reduced temperatures only if the dextran was prechilled to 4 degrees C before addition. The kinetics of 51Cr release during KCIL was rapid and complete 30 min after dispersion. Interferon-activated NK cells expressed an increased rate of cytolysis in Ca++ pulse experiments. This was due to an increased rate of the Ca++-dependent step(s) during the programming events. The rate of the Ca++-independent steps, however, were similar with control and IFN-activated cells.