Seasonal and spatial pattern of shelter use by badgers<Emphasis Type="Italic">Meles meles</Emphasis> in Białowieża Primeval Forest (Poland)

In 1997–2001, we investigated the use of day-time shelters by radio-collared badgersMeles meles (Linnaeus, 1758) in the Białowieża Primeval Forest, eastern Poland. Each social group of badgers utilised, on average, 9 different shelters per territory (range: 4–20). The main setts, occupied for breeding and winter sleep, were also most frequently used for day-time rest throughout the year (73% of days). Badgers living in the pristine oldgrowth stands utilised larger number of shelters and spent more days in hollow trees (mainly limeTilia cordata), compared to badgers inhabiting younger secondary tree stands. Number of shelters used by individuals varied between seasons and depended on sex and age of animals. In summer, badgers used more shelters than in spring and autumn. In winter, they stayed in their main setts only. Adult males occupied more shelters and spent fewer days in the main sett than other badgers. In spring, females rearing young used only the main setts. The average underground space used by badgers within the main sett was 128 m². It was largest in summer and smallest in winter, and also varied between males and females. We proposed that, in a low-density population, badgers used several setts and other daily shelters to reduce energy expenditure when exploring their large territories and foraging. Furthermore, setts may play a role of marking sites. Analysis of the biogeographical pattern of sett use by European badgers showed that the number of setts used by social groups increased with increasing territory size, whereas the density of setts (n setts/km²) was negatively correlated with territory size. We proposed that different factors could shape the utilisation of setts by badgers in low- and high-density populations.     

Spatio-temporal ecology and density of badgers <Emphasis Type="Italic">Meles meles</Emphasis> in the Swiss Jura Mountains

This study reports for the first time data on the spatio-temporal ecology of badgers living in a cold and wet mountain region (Swiss Jura Mountains). The home range, movements, activity patterns and habitat use of three badgers (two males, one female) were examined using radiotelemetry. Average home range size was 320 ha (MCP 100%), but the ranging behaviour of badgers varied at a seasonal scale. As in other regions, badgers were strictly nocturnal or crepuscular and showed a marked reduction of activity in the winter period. From spring to autumn, animals were active for an average (±SD) of 8.1 ± 2.4 h and travelled up to 9,460 m each night (mean±SD, 5,160 ± 2,600 m). The nightly distance travelled by badgers was positively correlated with their travel speed, the duration of the activity period and the used area, but not with night length. Year-round, the radio-collared animals avoided pastures and the vicinity of houses during their night trips. In winter and spring, individual badgers used forests and wooded pastures more than expected according to their availability, whereas cereal fields were actively selected in summer and autumn. Den-watching, night-lighting and radio-tracking data suggest that badgers live in pairs in this wet and cold region. Population density estimates range from 0.4 to 1.5 individuals/100 ha. We discuss the importance of trophic resources and climate as factors influencing badger behavioural ecology.     

Ecology of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Callithrix kuhlii</Emphasis> and a Review of Eastern Brazilian Marmosets

We provide data on wild Callithrix kuhlii, a little studied species. We describe their ecology, focusing on demography, diet, and ranging patterns in 8 groups studied from 1995 to 1999. The groups averaged 4.3 individuals, with 1 breeding female and 1–2 adult males, and reproduction was seasonal. Evidence from nonstudy groups indicated the possibility of polygynous group structure. We observed group formation and the transfer of adults between groups. The marmosets ate 20 species of fruit and nectar and 5 exudate species. Home ranges were 34–39 ha, and daily path lengths averaged 1498 m. We include our data in a comprehensive review of eastern Brazilian marmosets to characterize their ecology. Callithrix kuhlii ate more fruit species and less gum species, and had larger home ranges and daily path lengths versus those of most congeners. There was also a tradeoff between travel time and other behaviors. Species with smaller home ranges spent more time foraging and resting and less time traveling than the ones with larger ranges. Attributes consistent with all species included their reliance on gum during fruit scarcity and preference for disturbed habitat. We explored factors relating to the variation in diet and ranging patterns within the eastern Brazilian marmosets, in particular by considering the species in relation to elevation and the extent and proximity of their distribution to the sea. However, large intraspecific variation resulting in part from variable levels of anthropogenic disturbance across sites confounded our ability to verify trends corresponding to the geographic characteristics.     

Mating disruption to control damage by leafrollers in virginia apple orchards

Mating disruption for control of variegated leafroller (VLR),Platynota flavedana (Clemens), tufted apple bud moth (TBM),P. ideausalis Walker, and redbanded leafroller (RBL),Argyrotaenia velutinana (Walker), was studied in Virginia apple orchards in 1989 and 1990. In 1989, each dispenser (1000/ha) contained 190 mg of 67.2%E11–14:Ac, 28.8%Z11–14:Ac, 1.4%E11–14:OH, 0.6%Z11–14:OH, and 2%Z9–12:Ac (a putative generic leafroller disruption blend). Trap captures of VLR, TBM and RBL were reduced by 97%, 51% and 55%, respectively. Average leafroller injury in the interior and edge of the pheromone block was 3.8% and 2.7%, respectively. The conventional control and abandoned blocks had 0.05 and 27.5% injury, respectively. Dispensers containingE11–14:OH (70%) andZ11–14:OH (30%) (close to the natural blend of VLR), more effectively disrupted orientation to pheromone traps by bothPlatynota spp. than did the generic blend. In 1990, dispensers containing 150 mg ofE11–14:OH (70%) andZ11–14:OH (1000/ha) were placed in two 2-ha blocks and one 4-ha block. One pheromonetreated block was sprayed in August with phosmet for codling moth, not timed for leafrollers. Trap captures of VLR and TBM were reduced by almost 100% and 69%, respectively. RBL captures were not reduced by VLR pheromone permeation. Injury fromPlatynota spp. in pheromone block middles and edges ranged from 0.3–1.7% and 0.3–2.3%, respectively. Injury in conventional blocks ranged from 0–1.1%. RBL injury in pheromone block middles ranged from 0–6.1%, and in edges, 1.7–4.8%. Injury in control blocks ranged from 0–1.1%. Combined leafroller injury in an abandoned block was 18% (s.e. 0.3). Release rates averaged 30 and 32 mg/ha/h for the VLR and generic pheromone dispensers, respectively.     

Home range and activity of the Indian giant flying squirrel (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Petaurista philippensis</Emphasis>) in Taiwan: influence of diet,temperature, and rainfall

Knowledge on home range and activity patterns, along with their responses to environmental fluctuations, is important for the understanding of wildlife ecology and conservation, but related studies on giant flying squirrel species (genus Petaurista) are still limited. We radio-tracked five Indian giant flying squirrels (Petaurista philippensis) in subtropical Taiwan to assess their home range and activity patterns, as well as their behavioral strategy to cope with fluctuations in food quality. Specifically, we assessed the travelling and resting times of P. philippensis in relation to its energy requirements during periods of low food quality in winter. The influence of temperature and rainfall was also investigated. A total of five individuals were radio-tracked for 1–6 months. The home ranges of four individuals averaged 2.8 ± 2.0 ha (± SD), based on the 95 % kernel method. Mean home ranges of two adult males (4.4 ± 1.3 ha) were larger than a female (1.8) and sub-adult male (0.8). P. philippensis was found to be more active around dusk and dawn and less active at midnight. Daily ranging distance and activities were negatively associated with proportion of mature leaves in diet of the only female that we tracked. Rainfall had negative effects on activities of the males, while temperature had no significant influence. The current study suggested an energy conservative strategy of P. philippensis. Home ranges of P. philippensis are smaller than those of smaller flying squirrel species (genus Glaucomys and Pteromys spp.), which may be related to the differences in food habits and gliding efficiency.     

Effect of Resting Patterns of Tamarins (<Emphasis Type="BoldItalic">Saguinus fuscicollis</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="BoldItalic">Saguinus mystax</Emphasis>) on the Spatial Distribution of Seeds and Seedling Recruitment

The spatial distributions of dispersed seeds have important evolutionary consequences for plants. Repeated defecations in sites frequently used by seed dispersers can result in high seed concentrations. We observed the resting behavior of a mixed-species group of tamarins in Peru and recorded the occurrence of seed dispersal (over 8 mo) and seed fate (over 11–22 mo) to determine whether the location and use of resting sites influenced the spatial distribution of dispersed seeds and seedlings. The tamarins rested mostly on trees (Saguinus fuscicollis: 60.6%, S. mystax: 89.2%) and dead trunks (S. fuscicollis: 24.4%) and used 61% of their resting sites repeatedly. During both the dry and wet seasons, tamarins dispersed significantly more seeds within resting areas (0.00662 and 0.00424 seeds/m², respectively) than outside them (0.00141 and 0.00181 seeds/m²). Seed survival and seedling recruitment did not differ significantly between resting and other areas, resulting in a higher seedling concentration around the resting sites. Seed density did not increase with the duration or the frequency of use of the resting sites but did increase when we pooled the seasonal resting sites together in 50 m × 50 m quadrats, ultimately causing a clumped distribution of dispersed seeds. The use of resting sites in secondary forest, particularly during the dry season, allows the creation of seedling recruitment centers for species coming from the primary forest. Our findings show that tamarin resting behavior affects the spatial distribution of dispersed seeds and seedlings, and their resting sites play an important role in plant diversity maintenance and facilitate forest regeneration in degraded areas.     

Diet,Activity Patterns,and Ranging Ecology of the Bale Monkey (<Emphasis Type="BoldItalic">Chlorocebus djamdjamensis</Emphasis>) in Odobullu Forest,Ethiopia

Bale monkeys (Chlorocebus djamdjamensis) are little-known primates endemic to the forests of the Bale Massif and Hagere Selam regions of Ethiopia. From August 2007 to May 2008, we conducted the first ever study of the species’ behavior and ecology, focusing in particular on its diet, activity patterns, and ranging ecology in the Odobullu Forest. We studied 2 neighboring groups (group A: 55–60 members; group B: 46–50 members) and conducted behavioral scan samples on the first 2–5 individuals sighted at 15-min intervals. Feeding accounted for 65.7% of the activity budget, followed by moving (14.4%), resting (10.7%), social (7.1%), and other behaviors (2.4%). Overall diet during the study was dominated by young leaves (80.2%), though subjects also ate fruits (9.6%), flowers (3.1%), animal prey (2.3%), shoots (1.5%), stems (1.4%), mature leaves (1.1%), and roots (0.9%). Bale monkeys consumed only 11 plant species; of these, the top 5 species accounted for 94.3% of their diet. The top food item, bamboo (Arundinaria alpina), was responsible for a remarkable 76.7% of their diet, with most (95.2%) of the bamboo consumption consisting of young leaves. Mean daily path length for the study groups was 928 m and mean (100% minimum convex polygon) home range size was 15.2 ha. Though we are cautious in drawing conclusions from only 2 groups, the larger group traveled further per day and occupied a larger home range, patterns suggesting scramble competition may be occurring in Bale monkey groups at Odobullu. The dietary specialization of Bale monkeys on bamboo makes them unique among Chlorocebus spp. and suggests an intriguing ecological convergence with the golden monkeys (Cercopithecus mitis kandti) of Uganda and bamboo lemurs (Hapalemur spp.) of Madagascar. Their narrow ecological niche, limited geographic distribution, and bamboo harvesting by local people for commercial purposes place Bale monkeys at risk of extinction. To ensure the long-term survival of Bale monkeys, appropriate management action should be taken to conserve the species and the bamboo forests upon which it depends.     

New insights into social and space use behaviour of the endangered Pyrenean desman (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Galemys pyrenaicus</Emphasis>)

We describe novel aspects of the social organisation of the Pyrenean desman, Galemys pyrenaicus, by studying home range and shelter use behaviour in a local population. A total of 45 individuals were trapped of which 20 provided informative radiotracking data. In contrast to the currently accepted hypothesis [Stone RD. The social organization of the Pyrenean desman (Galemys pyrenaicus) as revealed by radiotelemetry. J Zool 212:117–129; 1987b; Stone RD, Gorman ML. Social organization of the European mole (Talpa europaea) and the Pyrenean desman (Galemys pyrenaicus). Mammal Rev 15 (1):35–42; 1985] individuals were not strictly territorial. Notably, there was no aggression between conspecifics, with simultaneous use of resting sites (shelters used for more than one hour). Resting sites were not permanent or exclusive for any individual. Individuals shared resting sites simultaneously, regardless of sex or age. Our observations recall for a new evaluation of the social structure and organisation of this species based on the new evidence that reveals higher frequency of social interactions than previously described. Resting sites may play an important role in the social organisation of the species, for instance by allowing direct and indirect communicative interactions among neighbouring individuals. This finding is of significance for the management (e.g. census and population monitoring) and conservation (e.g. habitat suitability to allow social interactions) of this endemic and seriously threatened unique mammal.     

Survey of the black howler monkey,<Emphasis Type="Italic">Alouatta pigra</Emphasis>, population at the Mayan site of Palenque,Chiapas, Mexico

A survey of the population of the black howler monkey (Alouatta pigra) present at the Mayan site of Palenque was conducted during 2000. A total of 911 man/hours, spread over 112 days were spent surveying the 600 ha area of pristine forest at the site for howler troops. We detected the presence of 136 individuals of which 131 were members of 20 troops, the rest were 3 solitary adult males and 2 adult males travelling as a pair. Ecological density was estimated at 23 individuals/km². Mean troop size was 7.0 individuals and it ranged from 2–12 individuals; 60% of the troops were multimale. All sighting of howler monkeys were in evergreen rain forest and 75% were in trees ≥20 m in height. The reported densities and mean troop size are higher than those reported for the species in Guatemala and in central Quintana Roo, Mexico. The vegetation of the forest contains tree species reported to be used by species ofAlouatta in the Moraceae, Sapotaceae, Leguminosae, and Lauraceae plant families. Protection of a large perimeter area (ca 1700 ha) around the archeological site by the Mexican government ensures the conservation of the forest and of the black howler monkey population present at the site.     

Fungal endorhizal associates of Equisetum species from Western and Arctic Canada

We describe endorhizal fungi associated with Equisetum species collected from Ellesmere Island (82°N), Axel Heiberg Island (80°N), and from sites in Yukon Territory and the Prairie Provinces (51–67°N). Fungal colonization was assessed using a multiple quantitation microintersect method for lactofuchsin-stained roots examined with wide-field and confocal epifluorescence microscopy. Equisetum roots host abundant and diverse endorhizal fungal associates. For 85 specimens from 14 sites, total colonization averaged 30 ± 3%, range 0–97%. Colonization rates for wide aseptate hyphae characteristic of arbuscular mycorrhizae (5 ± 1%) was significantly less than for fine endophytes (20 ± 3%) or septate endophytes (17 ± 2%). Equisetum spp. are abundant in tundra and an important understory plant in boreal forests, where they are particularly common on burned or disturbed sites. Endorhizal fungi associated with Equisetum may have broad ecological relevance.     

Space use and resting site selection of red foxes (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Vulpes vulpes</Emphasis>) living near villages and small towns in Southern Germany

In 2005–2008, we radio-tracked 17 foxes in rural areas of Southern Germany. The mean home range size was 76.6 ha (95% MCP) or 138.9 ha (95% fixed kernel), and the built-up area formed an integral part of the home range. Home ranges of juvenile foxes were significantly smaller than home ranges of adult foxes. Gender-specific differences among adult foxes were not established. A minimum population density of 2.7 foxes per km² and summer densities of up to 13.4 foxes per km² were calculated. Therefore, the fox density was three to eight times higher than that of strictly rural foxes. Daytime resting sites of foxes were mostly found in forests (62.2%) and reedbed areas (20.6%). Of the resting sites, 14.8% were situated inside settlements, in fallow gardens or gardens of residents. During the day, foxes exhibited habitat preferences for forests and reedbed areas. A habitat structure that offers plenty of cover or dense vegetation is essential for its selection as a safe resting site. If this basic requirement is fulfilled, foxes also choose resting sites within settlements, and are not disturbed by human presence.     

Microsatellite polymorphism in natural populations of wild emmer wheat,Triticum dicoccoides,in Israel

Diversity in 20 microsatellite loci of wild emmer wheat, Triticum dicoccoides, was examined in 15 populations (135 genotypes) representing a wide range of ecological conditions of soil, temperature, and water availability, in Israel and Turkey. An extensive amount of diversity at microsatellite loci was observed despite the predominantly selfing nature of this plant species. The 20 Gatersleben wheat microsatellites (GWM), representing 13 chromosomes of genomes A and B of wheat, revealed a total of 364 alleles, with an average of 18 alleles per GWM marker (range: 5–26). The proportion of polymorphic loci per population averaged 0.90 (range: 0.45– 1.00); genic diversity, He, averaged 0.50 (range 0.094– 0.736); and Shannon’s information index averaged 0.84 (range 0.166–1.307). The coefficients of genetic distance between populations were high and averaged D=1.862 (range 0.876–3.320), an indication of sharp genetic divergence over short distances. Interpopulation genetic distances showed no association with geographic distance between the population sites of origin, which ruled out a simple isolation by distance model. Genetic dissimilarity values between genotypes were used to produce a dendrogram of the relationships among wild wheat populations by the unweighted pair-group method with arithmetic averages (UPGMA). The results showed that all the wild emmer wheat populations could be distinguished. Microsatellite analysis was found to be highly effective in distinguishing genotypes of T. dicoccoides, originating from diverse ecogeographical sites in Israel and Turkey, with 88% of the 135 genotypes correctly classified into sites of origin by discriminant analysis. Our present microsatellite results are non-random and in agreement with the previously obtained allozyme and RAPD patterns, although the genetic-diversity values obtained with microsatellites are much higher. Significant correlates of microsatellite markers with various climatic and soil factors suggest that, as in allozymes and RAPDs, natural selection causes adaptive microsatellite ecogeographical differentiation, not only in coding, but most importantly in non-coding genomic regions. Hence, the concept of ”junk DNA” needs to be replaced by at least partly regulatory DNA. The obtained results suggest that microsatellite markers are useful for the estimation of genetic diversity in natural populations of T. dicoccoides and for the tagging of agronomically important traits derived from wild emmer wheat. Received: 27 February 2001 / Accepted: 22 March 2001     

Effects of age,size, and density on natural survival for an important coral reef fishery species,yellow tang, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Zebrasoma flavescens</Emphasis>

Hundreds of thousands of juvenile yellow tang, Zebrasoma flavescens, are caught each year in the state of Hawai’i (USA) for the live aquarium trade. As part of an extensive adaptive management strategy built around a network of protected areas, an emphasis was placed on understanding this important species’ life history. Multiple capture-mark-recapture techniques and a model selection approach to data analysis in Program MARK were used to estimate the effects of individual age and conspecific density on natural per-capita daily survival probabilities of yellow tang recruits (recently settled individuals, 30–50 mm total length) and the effects of body size and site on natural per-capita monthly survival probabilities for juveniles (58–127 mm total length). The models of recruit survival that included additive effects of density and age were best supported by the data and indicated an increase of survival with age and decrease of survival with increased conspecific density. At 1 day post-settlement, the model averaged daily per-capita survival probability ranged from 0.963 (95% CI: 0.932–0.981) at a low density of 0.1 recruits m⁻² to 0.848 (95% CI: 0.752–0.911) at a high density of 1.3 recruits m⁻². The best supported model of juvenile survival had no effect of fish length or site, with a constant monthly per-capita survival of 0.939 (95% CI: 0.925–0.950). Only about 1% of recruits may survive to adulthood when protected from fishing. These results can be used to better analyze and interpret data from protected area monitoring surveys and refine management practices. Continued long-term monitoring, combined with targeted life history studies and demographic modeling, is needed to further investigate the population level effects of fishing yellow tang juveniles.     

Natal dispersal of introduced Siberian chipmunks, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Tamias sibiricus</Emphasis>, in a suburban forest

The Siberian chipmunk, Tamias sibiricus, was introduced into the suburban forest of Sénart in the late 1970s where it naturalised. Juvenile dispersal of this solitary ground-dwelling squirrel is not known, while it is an important component of the invasion process. From 2003 to 2007, mark–recapture techniques were used to determine how dispersal movements differed between year, cohort, sex and body mass. Distances moved were calculated between the location of first capture during the year of birth and the arithmetic centre of the trapping locations obtained the next year. Excluding heaviest individuals, e.g. 80 g, that must have already dispersed and thus lowered the estimation of averaged distance moved, our results shows that the dispersal distance in juvenile males (168 ± 24 m, n = 39) was greater than in females (83 ± 11 m, n = 66), with no effect detected for either year or cohort. Juveniles are thus involved in the spread of this ground squirrel, bearing in mind that movements estimated may have been underestimated due to the use of capture–mark–recapture methods on a limited trapping area.     

Scramble Competition Among <Emphasis Type="Italic">Colobus vellerosus</Emphasis> at Boabeng-Fiema,Ghana

We investigated the occurrence of scramble competition among Colobus vellerosus at Boabeng-Fiema, Ghana. If scramble competition had an impact on feeding efficiency among females, we expected a positive relationship between group size and the proportion of time spent feeding, day journey length, or home range size assuming resource availability is similar among the groups compared. We collected focal data on the feeding behavior of adult females and males over 11 mo (September 2000–August 2001) on 2 study groups: WW (n = 31–33 individuals) and B (n = 8–16 individuals). We also collected ranging data on group movements at half-hour intervals. The large group (WW1) had a significantly longer day journey length than the small group (B1), and females in the large group spent a significantly greater proportion of time feeding in the wet season, a period of low food availability, which suggests it may be a bottleneck period when food resources are scarce and Colobus vellerosus is close to being energy limited. The proximity data suggested females may be able to reduce or adjust for competition by having fewer neighbors when they feed and by spreading out when in a larger group. However, we found no relationship between home range size and group size or that females spent a greater proportion of time feeding than adult males did. Our results highlight the need to factor in differences in food availability when investigating scramble competition. Though equivocal, our results suggest scramble competition occurs among Colobus vellerosus, leading us to suggest there was a match with the potential competitive regime, i.e., food distribution.     

Genetic estimates of immigration and emigration rates in relation to population density and forest patch area in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Peromyscus leucopus</Emphasis>

An emerging pattern is that population densities of generalist rodents are higher in small compared to large forest patches in fragmented landscapes. We used genetically based measures of migration between patches to test two dispersal-based hypotheses for this negative density-area relationship: (1) emigration rates from small patches should be relatively lower compared to large patches (“inhibited dispersal hypothesis”), or (2) immigration rates should be higher into small than large patches (“immigration hypothesis”). Neither hypothesis was supported using data on dispersal inferred from eight microsatellite loci for 12 populations of Peromyscus leucopus in six small (1.3–2.7 ha) and six large (8–150 ha) forest patches. Emigration rates were not lower from and immigration rates were not higher into small than large patches. In fact, contrary to both hypotheses, emigration rates were higher from populations of P. leucopus in small compared to large patches. Based on a combination of genetic and field data, we speculate that higher reproduction in smaller patches resulted in higher densities which led to higher emigration rates from those patches. Rates of reproduction (presumably driven by better habitat conditions in smaller patches), rather than dispersal, seems to drive density differences in forest patches. We conclude that smaller forest patches within an agricultural matrix act as a source of individuals, and that migration rates are fairly high among forest patches regardless of size.     

Characteristics of Night Sleeping Trees of Proboscis Monkeys (<Emphasis Type="BoldItalic">Nasalis larvatus</Emphasis>) in Sabah,Malaysia

Primates spend about half of their lives at sleeping sites, and their choice of sleeping sites may affect individual survival. We identified a total of 88 trees used by proboscis monkeys (Nasalis larvatus) as night sleeping sites on 16 nights from June to September 2008 in riverine, mangrove, and mixed mangrove–riverine forests along the Garama River, a tributary of the Klias River, in the west of Sabah, Malaysia. We recorded 11 variables for each tree, including the species, physical structure, distance from the riverbank, and connectivity with surrounding trees. We compared sleeping trees with 114 trees with ≥30 cm girth at breast height (GBH) located ≤50 m of the riverbank in 8 botanical plots (total 1 ha). Trees in the plots represented the general vegetation patterns of the study area. Choice of sleeping trees did not depend on the tree species. Although sleeping trees included trees ≤46 m from the river, those closer to riverbanks (5–35 m, n = 76) were more likely to be used as sleeping sites. Compared to the available trees, sleeping trees had larger trunks (mean±SD = 143.6 ± 56.9 cm GBH), and were taller (mean±SD = 34.3 ± 8.1 m), with greater number (median = 6; range = 12) and larger (mean±SD = 24.1 ± 15.2 cm circumference) main branches. They were also located near to other trees, with overlapping branches, creating good arboreal connectivity. Choice of sleeping trees by proboscis monkeys is likely to be related to risks of predation and injury from falling, as well as ease of social interaction and efficiency of locomotion.     

Diversity of understory plants in undisturbed and disturbed tropical lowland forests of Little Andaman Island, India

Species richness and density of understory plants were investigated in eight 1 ha plots, distributed one each in undisturbed and disturbed tropical evergreen, semi-evergreen, deciduous and littoral forests of Little Andaman island, India, which falls under one of the eight hottest hotspots of Biodiversity in the world viz. the Indo-Burma. One hundred 1 m⁻² quadrats were established in each 1 ha plot, in which all the understory plants (that include herbs, undershrubs, shrubs and herbaceous climbers) were enumerated. The total density of understory plants was 6,812 individuals (851 ha⁻¹) and species richness was 108 species, representing 104 genera and 50 families. Across the four forest types and eight study plots, the species richness ranged from 10 to 39 species ha⁻¹. All the disturbed sites harbored greater number of species than their undisturbed counterparts. Herbs dominated by species (63%) and density (4,259 individuals). The grass Eragrostis tenella (1,860 individuals; IVI 40), the invasive climber Mikania cordata (803; IVI 20) and the shrub Anaxagorea luzonensis (481; IVI 17.5) were the most abundant species. Poaceae, Asteraceae, Acanthaceae, Orchidaceae and Euphorbiaceae constituted the species-rich families represented by 6 species each. The species-area curves attained an asymptote at 0.8 ha level except in sites DD and DL, indicating 1 ha plot is not sufficient to capture all the understory species in disturbed forests. The alien weeds formed about one-fourth of the species richness (31 species; 28%) and density (1,926 individuals; 28.3%) in the study sites, indicating the extent of weed invasion and the attention required for effective conservation of the native biodiversity of the fragile island forest ecosystem.     

Population dynamics of Japanese serow in relation to social organization and habitat conditions. II. Effects of clear-cutting and planted tree growth on Japanese serow populations

Population responses of Japanese serow (Capricornis crispus) to clear-cut logging and planted tree growth were studied by a direct count of the number observed in three areas, Takiyama (305 ha), Gentouziro (270 ha), and Tanokashira (324 ha), near Wakinosawa Village, Aomori Prefecture, Japan, during 1976–89. At Takiyama, a mature mixed forest ofThujopsis dolabrata var.hondai andFagus crenata decreased from 73 to 39% coverage of the area due to clear-cutting during 1978–83. The serow population maintained a relatively low stable density (3–6 individuals per km²) until 1985–87, and increased 5–10 years after the clear-cutting, reaching 9–10 km⁻² in 1988. At Gentouziro and Tanokashira, young plantations of Japanese cedar (Cryptomeria japonica) covered about half of each area. The population densities between 1980 and 1983 were relatively high (14–19 km⁻²), but declined thereafter, reaching 10–14 km⁻² in 1988–89. These results indicated that the density increase resulted from an improvement of food supply due to growth of scrub following the clear-cutting, and that the density decline resulted from a habitat change due to growth of planted Japanese cedar and a decrease in the food supply. In Wakinosawa Village, serow density began to increase 5–10 years after forest cutting, and the high population density, about three- or six-fold larger than that in mature forest, is expected to be maintained for about 20 years after logging.     

Differential mobility in two small phyllostomid bats,<Emphasis Type="Italic">Artibeus watsoni</Emphasis> and<Emphasis Type="Italic">Micronycteris microtis</Emphasis>, in a fragmented neotropical landscape

To assess the influence of habitat fragmentation on small bats, we determined home range size and mobility of the frugivorousArtibeus watsoni Thomas, 1901 and the gleaning insectivorousMicronycteris microtis Miller, 1898 by radiotracking on different-sized islands (2.7–17 ha) in Lake Gatún, Panamá. The two species differed in their response to fragmentation. Home range size was highly variable in the five trackedA. watsoni, ranging from 1.8 to 17.9 ha with a mean of about 9 ha. Some individuals flew regularly between islands and/or the mainland, thereby traversing up to 180 m of open water. In comparison, home ranges of threeM. microtis were with about 3.8 ha only half as large. All ofM. microtis exhibited sedentary foraging behaviour and did not cross open water, suggesting that they might persist at least on some of the islands as resident populations. Our findings are consistent with radiotracking data from a previous study and indicate that small habitat patches are still used by small bats, provided the degree of isolation is low and that sufficient resources and larger habitat patches exist in close vicinity, potentially acting as additional feeding grounds and source populations.