MyD88-induced downregulation of IRAK-4 and its structural requirements

IRAK-4 plays an essential role in Toll-like receptor (TLR)/IL-1 receptor signaling. However, its signaling and regulation mechanisms have remained elusive. We have reported previously that stimulation of TLR2, TLR4 or TLR9, but not TLR3, leads to downregulation of IRAK-4 protein. Here, we show that expression of MyD88 leads to downregulation of endogenous as well as exogenously expressed IRAK-4 protein in HEK293 cells. Expression of TRIF did not cause IRAK-4 downregulation although it induced NF-kappaB activation. Expression of either a deletion mutant of MyD88 lacking its death domain or MyD88s, neither of which induced NF-kappaB activation, did not lead to IRAK-4 downregulation. MyD88-induced downregulation was observed in an IRAK-4 mutant lacking the kinase domain, but not in another mutant lacking the death domain. These results demonstrate that downregulation of IRAK-4 requires activation of the MyD88-dependent pathway and that the death domains of both MyD88 and IRAK-4 are important for this downregulation.     

Contribution of globular death domains and unstructured linkers to MyD88·IRAK-4 heterodimer formation: An explanation for the antagonistic activity of MyD88s

Homotypic interactions of death domains (DD) mediate complex formation between MyD88 and IL-1 receptor-associated kinases (IRAKs). A truncated splice variant of MyD88, MyD88s, cannot recruit IRAK-4 and fails to elicit inflammatory responses. We have generated recombinant DD of MyD88 and IRAK-4, both alone and extended by the linkers to TIR or kinase domains. We show that both MyD88 DD variants bind to the linker-extended IRAK-4 DD and pull-down full-length IRAK-4 from monocyte extracts. By contrast, residues up to Glu¹¹⁶ from the DD-kinase connector of IRAK-4 are needed for strong interactions with the adaptor. Our findings indicate that residues 110-120, which form a C-terminal extra helix in MyD88, but not the irregular linker between DD and TIR domains, are required for IRAK-4 recruitment, and provide a straightforward explanation for the negative regulation of innate immune responses mediated by MyD88s.     

Regulation of MyD88 Aggregation and the MyD88-dependent Signaling Pathway by Sequestosome 1 and Histone Deacetylase 6

MyD88 is an essential adaptor molecule for Toll-like receptors (TLRs) and interleukin (IL)-1 receptor. MyD88 is thought to be present as condensed forms or aggregated structures in the cytoplasm, although the reason has not yet been clear. Here, we show that endogenous MyD88 is present as small speckle-like condensed structures, formation of which depends on MyD88 dimerization. In addition, formation of large aggregated structures is related to cytoplasmic accumulation of sequestosome 1 (SQSTM1; also known as p62) and histone deacetylase 6 (HDAC6), which are involved in accumulation of polyubiquitinated proteins. A gene knockdown study revealed that SQSTM1 and HDAC6 were required for MyD88 aggregation and exhibited a suppressive effect on TLR ligand-induced expression of IL-6 and NOS2 in RAW264.7 cells. SQSTM1 and HDAC6 were partially involved in suppression of several TLR4-mediated signaling events, including activation of p38 and JNK, but they hardly affected degradation of IκBα (inhibitor of nuclear factor κB). Biochemical induction of MyD88 oligomerization induced recruitment of SQSTM1 and HDAC6 to the MyD88-TRAF6 signaling complex. Repression of SQSTM1 and HDAC6 enhanced formation of the MyD88-TRAF6 complex and conversely decreased interaction of the ubiquitin-specific negative regulator CYLD with the complex. Furthermore, ubiquitin-binding regions on SQSTM1 and HDAC6 were essential for MyD88 aggregation but were not required for interaction with the MyD88 complex. Thus, our study reveals not only that SQSTM1 and HDAC6 are important determinants of aggregated localization of MyD88 but also that MyD88 activates a machinery of polyubiquitinated protein accumulation that has a modulatory effect on MyD88-dependent signal transduction.     

The death domain of IRAK-1: an oligomerization domain mediating interactions with MyD88, Tollip, IRAK-1, and IRAK-4

Ligand binding in the Toll-like/interleukin-1 receptor family results in the recruitment of an intracellular signaling complex. IRAK-1, which is centrally involved in this complex, is able to homo-oligomerize and to bind to Tollip and the adapters MyD88 and IRAK-4. The interactions of IRAK-1 with MyD88 or Tollip are mediated by the N-terminal part of IRAK-1, containing the death domain with the highly conserved threonine at position 66 (T66). Mutation of this amino acid into alanine or aspartic acid stabilized binding to MyD88, Tollip, and IRAK-4, allowing the definitive experimental proof, that all these interactions are mediated by the death domain of IRAK-1. Homo-oligomerization of IRAK-1, which is mediated by the death domain too, is not affected by mutation of T66. Finally, mutation of IRAK-1 at T66 not only allowed stable binding to the signaling adapters, but also enhanced its signaling capacity.     

Interleukin-10 activates Toll-like receptor 4 and requires MyD88 for cardiomyocyte survival

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) are important in a variety of inflammatory diseases including acute cardiac disorders. TLR4 innate signaling regulates the synthesis of anti-inflammatory cytokine, interleukin-10 (IL-10) upon TLR4 agonists’ re-stimulation. Anti-apoptotic action of IL-10 in cardiac dysfunction is generally accepted but its protective mechanism through TLR4 is not yet understood. We studied the effect of IL-10 in the activation of TLR4 downstream signals leading to cardiomyocytes survival. IL-10 caused a significant increase in the expression of CD14, MyD88 and TLR4. TLR4 activation led to the translocation of the interferon regulatory factor 3 (IRF3) into the nucleus. Phosphorylation of IRF3 enhanced mRNA synthesis for IL-1β but not TNF-α and was elevated even after removal of IL-10 stimulation. Furthermore, degradation of inhibitory kappa B (IκB) kinase (Ikk) suggested that IκBβ was the main activating kinase for IRF3-regulated NF-κB activation and phosphorylation of p65. Phosphorylated NF-κB p65 was translocated into the nucleus. Concomitantly, an increase in Bcl-xL activity inhibited Bax and the proteolytic activity of caspase 3 as well as a decrease in PARP cleavage. An inhibition of MyD88, modulated the above listed responses to IL-10 as there was a decrease in TLR4 and IRF3 and an increase in TNF-α mRNA. This was associated with a decrease in NF-κB p65, Bcl-xL mRNA and protein levels as well as there was an activation of Bax and PARP cleavage independent of caspase 3 activation. These data in cardiomyocytes suggest that IL-10 induced anti-apoptotic signaling involves upregulation of TLR4 through MyD88 activation.     

Mycobacterial Phosphatidylinositol Mannosides Negatively Regulate Host Toll-like Receptor 4, MyD88-dependent Proinflammatory Cytokines, and TRIF-dependent Co-stimulatory Molecule Expression

Mycobacterium tuberculosis modulates host immune responses through proteins and complex glycolipids. Here, we report that the glycosylphosphatidylinositol anchor phosphatidyl-myo-inositol hexamannosides PIM₆ or PIM₂ exert potent anti-inflammatory activities. PIM strongly inhibited the Toll-like receptor (TLR4) and myeloid differentiation protein 88 (MyD88)-mediated release of NO, cytokines, and chemokines, including tumor necrosis factor (TNF), interleukin 12 (IL-12) p40, IL-6, keratinocyte-derived chemokine, and also IL-10 by lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-activated macrophages. This effect was independent of the presence of TLR2. PIM also reduced the LPS-induced MyD88-independent, TIR domain-containing adaptor protein inducing interferon β (TRIF)-mediated expression of co-stimulatory receptors. PIM inhibited LPS/TLR4-induced NFκB translocation. Synthetic PIM₁ and a PIM₂ mimetic recapitulated these in vitro activities and inhibited endotoxin-induced airway inflammation, TNF and keratinocyte-derived chemokine secretion, and neutrophil recruitment in vivo. Mannosyl, two acyl chains, and phosphatidyl residues are essential for PIM anti-inflammatory activity, whereas the inosityl moiety is dispensable. Therefore, PIM exert potent antiinflammatory effects both in vitro and in vivo that may contribute to the strategy developed by mycobacteria for repressing the host innate immunity, and synthetic PIM analogs represent powerful anti-inflammatory leads.Multifold interactions between Mycobacterium tuberculosis and host phagocytes determine immune responses to M. tuberculosis and tuberculosis pathogenesis (for review, see Refs. 1 and 2). Alveolar macrophages, the primary host cells for M. tuberculosis, and dendritic cells that carry mycobacterial antigens from the infection site to the draining lymph nodes to establish a T cell-mediated immune response contribute to modulate the innate immune response by secreting cytokines after recognition of microbial motives. Among them, TNF² is an essential mediator for granuloma formation and containment of M. tuberculosis infection. Similarly, IL-12, interferon γ, but also IL-1, IL-18, IL-23, and nitric oxide are required for host defense (1–6). Phagocytes are also a source of immuno-modulatory cytokines, such as IL-10 and transforming growth factor-β, which dampen the immune response and inflammation. Mycobacteria-derived molecules down-modulating the immune system have been described, including the protein ESAT-6, mannose-capped lipoarabinomannan (ManLAM), and lipomannans (LM) (7–12). Here, we report that phosphatidyl-myo-inositol mannosides (PIM), the glycosylphosphatidylinositol (GPI) anchor structure of LAM and LM, exert strong anti-inflammatory activities.Mycobacterial cell wall LAM, LM, and PIM are recognized by macrophages and dendritic cells through various pattern recognition receptors, including Toll-like receptors (TLRs) (13–16) and C-type lectins such as mannose receptor (MR/CD206) and dendritic cell-specific intercellular adhesion molecule-3 grabbing nonintegrin (DC-SIGN/CD209), central to M. tuberculosis binding and internalization by human dendritic cells (17–20). DC-SIGN and mannose receptor were proposed to mediate ManLAM inhibition of LPS-induced IL-12 production in dendritic cells, an activity ascribed to the mannosylated cap (8, 9). We showed recently that mycobacterial LM have a dual potential for pro-inflammatory and anti-inflammatory effects (11), tri- and tetra-acylated LM fractions exerting stimulatory effects through TLR2, TLR4, and MyD88 (21), whereas diacylated LM inhibit LPS-induced cytokine response independently of TLR2, SIGN-R1, and mannose receptor (12).PIM are biosynthetic precursors of LM and LAM (22–25). Dimannoside (PIM₂) and hexamannoside (PIM₆) PIM are the two most abundant classes of PIM found in M. tuberculosis H37Rv and Mycobacterium bovis BCG (see Fig. 1). PIM purification and molecular chemical characterization revealed four major acyl forms, mono- to tetra-acylated (lyso-PIM for one acyl, PIM for two acyl, Ac₁PIM for three acyl, and Ac₂PIM for four acyl, respectively; see Fig. 1) for both PIM₂ and PIM₆ (26–29). Higher order PIM with mannose cap-like structures were found to preferentially associate with human MR and to contribute to phagosome-lysosome fusion (20). The degree of acylation influenced higher order PIM association with the MR, whereas PIM₂ was recognized by DC-SIGN independently of its acylation degree. The complete synthesis of the different PIM has recently been reported (30–33).Open in a separate windowFIGURE 1.Natural PIM and synthetic PIM₁ and PIM₂ mimetics used in the study. Shown is a schematic representation of natural lyso-PIM₆, PIM₆, Ac₁PIM₆, Ac₂PIM₆, and PIM₂ (A) and synthetic PIM₁ (B) showing the C16 and C18 acyl groups on glycerol chain positions sn-2 and sn-1, the precursor PI, a synthetic mimetic of PIM₂ (PIM₂ mimetic) bearing C16 and C18 acyl chains, the de-acylated control molecule precursor of the PIM₂ mimetic (de-AcPIM₂ mimetic), and a PIM₂ mimetic with replacement of the phosphodiester moiety by a carbonate.Here, we analyzed isolated acyl forms of PIM and identified PIM₂ and PIM₆ but also synthetic PIM₁ and a mimetic of PIM₂ as strong inhibitors of endotoxin-induced proinflammatory responses in vitro and in vivo. Using macrophages from genetically modified mice, we characterized PIM inhibitory effects on MyD88, TRIF, and NFκB signaling pathways. Hence, not only complex mycobacterial lipoglycans like ManLAM and LM but also small molecular weight PIM analogues are potent inhibitors of host inflammatory responses.     

Discovering differential activation machinery of the Toll-like receptor 4 signaling pathways in MyD88 knockouts

To understand differential time activation of nuclear factor kappaB (NF-kappaB) and the temporal features of the downstream pro-inflammatory cytokines' [tumour-necrosis-factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) and IP-10] mRNA levels in myeloid differentiation primary-response protein 88 (MyD88) knockouts (KOs), I developed a computational model of the TLR4 pathway. The result suggests that the late phase expression of NF-kappaB activity observed in MyD88 KOs is possibly due to a number of novel intermediates acting along the MyD88-independent pathway. I also simulate that the TNF-alpha levels will increase at a longer time in MyD88 KOs, not previously mentioned.     

OTUD4 Is a Phospho-Activated K63 Deubiquitinase that Regulates MyD88-Dependent Signaling

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Nucleoredoxin Negatively Regulates Toll-like Receptor 4 Signaling via Recruitment of Flightless-I to Myeloid Differentiation Primary Response Gene (88)

We previously characterized nucleoredoxin (NRX) as a negative regulator of the Wnt signaling pathway through Dishevelled (Dvl). We perform a comprehensive search for other NRX-interacting proteins and identify Flightless-I (Fli-I) as a novel NRX-binding partner. Fli-I binds to NRX and other related proteins, such as Rod-derived cone viability factor (RdCVF), whereas Dvl binds only to NRX. Endogenous NRX and Fli-I in vivo interactions are confirmed. Both NRX and RdCVF link Fli-I with myeloid differentiation primary response gene (88) (MyD88), an important adaptor protein for innate immune response. NRX and RdCVF also potentiate the negative effect of Fli-I upon lipopolysaccharide-induced activation of NF-κB through the Toll-like receptor 4/MyD88 pathway. Embryonic fibroblasts derived from NRX gene-targeted mice show aberrant NF-κB activation upon lipopolysaccharide stimulation. These results suggest that the NRX subfamily of proteins forms a link between MyD88 and Fli-I to mediate negative regulation of the Toll-like receptor 4/MyD88 pathway.     

Toll/Interleukin-1 Receptor Domain Dimers as the Platform for Activation and Enhanced Inhibition of Toll-like Receptor Signaling

TIR (Toll/IL-1 receptor) domains mediate interactions between TLR (Toll-like) or IL-1 family receptors and signaling adapters. While homotypic TIR domain interactions mediate receptor activation they are also usurped by microbial TIR domain containing proteins for immunosuppression. Here we show the role of a dimerized TIR domain platform for the suppression as well as for the activation of MyD88 signaling pathway. Coiled-coil dimerization domain, present in many bacterial TCPs, potently augments suppression of TLR/IL-1R signaling. The addition of a strong coiled-coil dimerization domain conferred the superior inhibition against the wide spectrum of TLRs and prevented the constitutive activation by a dimeric TIR platform. We propose a molecular model of MyD88-mediated signaling based on the dimerization of TIR domains as the limiting step.     

病毒感染对宿主TLRs模式识别与免疫应答信号的影响

TLRs是一类古老的天然模式识别分子,通过识别病毒的PAMPs,活化依赖和非依赖于MyD88的信号通路,诱导IFNs、促炎性细胞因子和趋化因子等分子的释放和表达,清除病毒的感染;同时,病毒为了感染宿主,采用多种免疫逃避策略干扰机体TLRs的信号,尤其调节MyD88、NF-κB、TRIF和IRFs等重要信号分子,以逃避机体天然PRRs的监视、识别和清除。因此,本文重点以VACV、HCV和HIV为例,介绍病毒感染对宿主TLRs模式识别与免疫应答信号的调节,以进一步理解病毒与宿主相互作用的复杂性,为病毒病的有效防治提供理论依据。     

Toll-like receptors and fungal infections: the role of TLR2, TLR4 and MyD88 in paracoccidioidomycosis

The aim of this minireview is to present a concise view of the most important pattern recognition receptors used by the innate immune system to sense and control pathogen growth into host tissues. A brief review of the role of Toll-like receptors (TLRs) in fungal infections followed by some recent results on the function of TLR4, TLR2 and the MyD88 adaptor molecule in the pathogenesis of paracoccidioidomycosis are presented.     

Gastrin-Releasing Peptide Receptor Antagonism Induces Protection from Lethal Sepsis: Involvement of Toll-like Receptor 4 Signaling

In sepsis, toll-like receptor (TLR)-4 modulates the migration of neutrophils to infectious foci, favoring bacteremia and mortality. In experimental sepsis, organ dysfunction and cytokines released by activated macrophages can be reduced by gastrin-releasing peptide (GRP) receptor (GRPR) antagonist RC-3095. Here we report a link between GRPR and TLR-4 in experimental models and in sepsis patients. RAW 264.7 culture cells were exposed to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and RC-3095 (10 ng/mL). Male Wistar rats were subjected to cecal ligation and puncture (CLP), and RC-3095 was administered (3 mg/kg, subcutaneously); after 6 h, we removed the blood, bronchoalveolar lavage, peritoneal lavage and lung. Human patients with a clinical diagnosis of sepsis received a continuous infusion with RC-3095 (3 mg/kg, intravenous) over a period of 12 h, and plasma was collected before and after RC-3095 administration and, in a different set of patients with systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) or sepsis, GRP plasma levels were determined. RC-3095 inhibited TLR-4, extracellular-signal–related kinase (ERK)-1/2, Jun NH₂-terminal kinase (JNK) and Akt and decreased activation of activator protein 1 (AP-1), nuclear factor (NF)-κB and interleukin (IL)-6 in macrophages stimulated by LPS. It also decreased IL-6 release from macrophages stimulated by TNF-α. RC-3095 treatment in CLP rats decreased lung TLR-4, reduced the migration of cells to the lung and reduced systemic cytokines and bacterial dissemination. Patients with sepsis and systemic inflammatory response syndrome have elevated plasma levels of GRP, which associates with clinical outcome in the sepsis patients. These findings highlight the role of GRPR signaling in sepsis outcome and the beneficial action of GRPR antagonists in controlling the inflammatory response in sepsis through a mechanism involving at least inhibition of TLR-4 signaling.     

MyD88-dependent immune activation mediated by human immunodeficiency virus type 1-encoded Toll-like receptor ligands

Immune activation is a major characteristic of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection and a strong prognostic factor for HIV-1 disease progression. The underlying mechanisms leading to immune activation in viremic HIV-1 infection, however, are not fully understood. Here we show that, following the initiation of highly active antiretroviral therapy, the immediate decline of immune activation is closely associated with the reduction of HIV-1 viremia, which suggests a direct contribution of HIV-1 itself to immune activation. To propose a mechanism, we demonstrate that the single-stranded RNA of HIV-1 encodes multiple uridine-rich Toll-like receptor 7/8 (TLR7/8) ligands that induce strong MyD88-dependent plasmacytoid dendritic cell and monocyte activation, as well as accessory cell-dependent T-cell activation. HIV-1-encoded TLR ligands may, therefore, directly contribute to the immune activation observed during viremic HIV-1 infection. These data provide an initial rationale for inhibiting the TLR pathway to directly reduce the chronic immune activation induced by HIV-1 and the associated immune pathogenesis.     

Reciprocal modulation of Toll-like receptor-4 signaling pathways involving MyD88 and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase/AKT by saturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids

Toll-like receptor-4 (TLR4) can be activated by nonbacterial agonists, including saturated fatty acids. However, downstream signaling pathways activated by nonbacterial agonists are not known. Thus, we determined the downstream signaling pathways derived from saturated fatty acid-induced TLR4 activation. Saturated fatty acid (lauric acid)-induced NFkappaB activation was inhibited by a dominant-negative mutant of TLR4, MyD88, IRAK-1, TRAF6, or IkappaBalpha in macrophages (RAW264.7) and 293T cells transfected with TLR4 and MD2. Lauric acid induced the transient phosphorylation of AKT. LY294002, dominant-negative (DN) phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K), or AKT(DN) inhibited NFkappaB activation, p65 transactivation, and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) expression induced by lauric acid or constitutively active (CA) TLR4. AKT(DN) blocked MyD88-induced NFkappaB activation, suggesting that AKT is a MyD88-dependent downstream signaling component of TLR4. AKT(CA) was sufficient to induce NFkappaB activation and COX-2 expression. These results demonstrate that NFkappaB activation and COX-2 expression induced by lauric acid are at least partly mediated through the TLR4/PI3K/AKT signaling pathway. In contrast, docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) inhibited the phosphorylation of AKT induced by lipopolysaccharide or lauric acid. DHA also suppressed NFkappaB activation induced by TLR4(CA), but not MyD88(CA) or AKT(CA), suggesting that the molecular targets of DHA are signaling components upstream of MyD88 and AKT. Together, these results suggest that saturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids reciprocally modulate the activation of TLR4 and its downstream signaling pathways involving MyD88/IRAK/TRAF6 and PI3K/AKT and further suggest the possibility that TLR4-mediated target gene expression and cellular responses are also differentially modulated by saturated and unsaturated fatty acids.     

Infection Mobilizes Hematopoietic Stem Cells through Cooperative NOD-like Receptor and Toll-like Receptor Signaling

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Cigarette smoke-induced pulmonary inflammation is TLR4/MyD88 and IL-1R1/MyD88 signaling dependent

Acute cigarette smoke exposure of the airways (two cigarettes twice daily for three days) induces acute inflammation in mice. In this study, we show that airway inflammation is dependent on Toll-like receptor 4 and IL-1R1 signaling. Cigarette smoke induced a significant recruitment of neutrophils in the bronchoalveolar space and pulmonary parenchyma, which was reduced in TLR4-, MyD88-, and IL-1R1-deficient mice. Diminished neutrophil influx was associated with reduced IL-1, IL-6, and keratinocyte-derived chemokine levels and matrix metalloproteinase-9 activity in the bronchoalveolar space. Further, cigarette smoke condensate (CSC) induced a macrophage proinflammatory response in vitro, which was dependent on MyD88, IL-1R1, and TLR4 signaling, but not attributable to LPS. Heat shock protein 70, a known TLR4 agonist, was induced in the airways upon smoke exposure, which probably activates the innate immune system via TLR4/MyD88, resulting in airway inflammation. CSC-activated macrophages released mature IL-1beta only in presence of ATP, whereas CSC alone promoted the TLR4/MyD88 signaling dependent production of IL-1alpha and pro-IL-1beta implicating cooperation between TLRs and the inflammasome. In conclusion, acute cigarette exposure results in LPS-independent TLR4 activation, leading to IL-1 production and IL-1R1 signaling, which is crucial for cigarette smoke induced inflammation leading to chronic obstructive pulmonary disease with emphysema.     

Rewiring of sIgM-Mediated Intracellular Signaling through the CD180 Toll-like Receptor

Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) development and progression are thought to be driven by unknown antigens/autoantigens through the B cell receptor (BCR) and environmental signals for survival and expansion including toll-like receptor (TLR) ligands. CD180/RP105, a membrane-associated orphan receptor of the TLR family, induces normal B cell activation and proliferation and is expressed by approximately 60% of CLL samples. Half of these respond to ligation with anti-CD180 antibody by increased activation/phosphorylation of protein kinases associated with BCR signaling. Hence CLL cells expressing both CD180 and the BCR could receive signals via both receptors. Here we investigated cross-talk between BCR and CD180-mediated signaling on CLL cell survival and apoptosis. Our data indicate that ligation of CD180 on responsive CLL cells leads to activation of either prosurvival Bruton tyrosine kinase (BTK)/phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate 3-kinase (PI3K)/AKT-mediated, or proapoptotic p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (p38MAPK)-mediated signaling pathways, while selective immunoglobulin M (sIgM) ligation predominantly engages the BTK/PI3K/AKT pathway. Furthermore, pretreatment of CLL cells with anti-CD180 redirects IgM-mediated signaling from the prosurvival BTK/PI3K/AKT toward the proapoptotic p38MAPK pathway. Thus preengaging CD180 could prevent further prosurvival signaling mediated via the BCR and, instead, induce CLL cell apoptosis, opening the door to therapeutic profiling and new strategies for the treatment of a substantial cohort of CLL patients.