Quantitative Measurement of in Vivo Phosphorylation States of Cdk5 Activator p35 by Phos-tag SDS-PAGE

Phosphorylation is a major post-translational modification widely used in the regulation of many cellular processes. Cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (Cdk5) is a proline-directed serine/threonine kinase activated by activation subunit p35. Cdk5-p35 regulates various neuronal activities such as neuronal migration, spine formation, synaptic activity, and cell death. The kinase activity of Cdk5 is regulated by proteolysis of p35: proteasomal degradation causes down-regulation of Cdk5, whereas cleavage of p35 by calpain causes overactivation of Cdk5. Phosphorylation of p35 determines the proteolytic pathway. We have previously identified Ser⁸ and Thr¹³⁸ as major phosphorylation sites using metabolic labeling of cultured cells followed by two-dimensional phosphopeptide mapping and phosphospecific antibodies. However, these approaches cannot determine the extent of p35 phosphorylation in vivo. Here we report the use of Phos-tag SDS-PAGE to reveal the phosphorylation states of p35 in neuronal culture and brain. Using Phos-tag acrylamide, the electrophoretic mobility of phosphorylated p35 was delayed because it is trapped at Phos-tag sites. We found a novel phosphorylation site at Ser⁹¹, which was phosphorylated by Ca²⁺-calmodulin-dependent protein kinase II in vitro. We constructed phosphorylation-dependent banding profiles of p35 and Ala substitution mutants at phosphorylation sites co-expressed with Cdk5 in COS-7 cells. Using the standard banding profiles, we assigned respective bands of endogenous p35 with combinations of phosphorylation states and quantified Ser⁸, Ser⁹¹, and Thr¹³⁸ phosphorylation. The highest level of p35 phosphorylation was observed in embryonic brain; Ser⁸ was phosphorylated in all p35 molecules, whereas Ser⁹¹ was phosphorylated in 60% and Thr¹³⁸ was phosphorylated in ∼12% of p35 molecules. These are the first quantitative and site-specific measurements of phosphorylation of p35, demonstrating the usefulness of Phos-tag SDS-PAGE for analysis of phosphorylation states of in vivo proteins.Phosphorylation is a major post-translational modification of proteins, modulating a variety of cellular functions (1, 2). Because most phosphorylation occurs in a highly site-specific manner, identification of phosphorylation sites has been a subject of intense investigation. Several analytical methods have been utilized to identify phosphorylation sites, including mass spectrometry, amino acid sequencing, and radioisotope phosphate labeling of proteins with mutation(s) at putative phosphorylation site(s) (3, 4). Phosphorylation site-specific antibodies are frequently used to detect phosphorylation at target sites (5, 6). Many phosphospecific antibodies are now commercially available. These phosphospecific antibodies are convenient and useful tools for examining site-specific phosphorylation both in vivo and in vitro. However, they are not appropriate for estimating quantitative ratios of phosphorylation states. Electrophoretic mobility shift on SDS-PAGE is also often used to observe phosphorylation (7–10), but this method is not always applied to site-specific phosphorylation.Phos-tag is a newly developed dinuclear metal complex that can be used to provide phosphate-binding sites when conjugated to analytical materials such as acrylamide and biotin (11). In SDS-PAGE using Phos-tag acrylamide, phosphorylated proteins are trapped by the Phos-tag sites, delaying their migration and thus separating them from unphosphorylated proteins. Subsequent immunoblot analysis with phosphorylation-independent antibodies reveals both the phosphorylated and unphosphorylated bands. Because the migration of the phosphorylated proteins is greatly delayed compared with migration in Laemmli SDS-PAGE, it is easy to identify the phosphorylated proteins from observed positions on blots. In the past 3 years, this method has been used to detect phosphorylation states for many proteins such as ERK1/2, cdc37, myosin light chain, eIF2α, protein kinase D, β-casein, SIRT7, and dysbindin-1 (12–21).Cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (Cdk5)¹ is a proline-directed serine/threonine kinase that is expressed predominantly in postmitotic neurons and regulates various neuronal events such as neuronal migration, spine formation, synaptic activity, and cell death (22–24). Cdk5 is activated by binding to activation subunit p35 and inactivated by proteasomal degradation of p35 (25). In addition, Cdk5 activity is deregulated by cleavage of p35 to p25 with calpain, resulting in abnormal activation and ultimately causing neuronal cell death (26–29). Proteolysis of p35, either by proteasomal degradation or cleavage by calpain, is regulated by phosphorylation of p35 by Cdk5 (30–33). Therefore, phosphorylation of p35 is essential for proper regulation of Cdk5 activity and function. We previously identified Ser⁸ and Thr¹³⁸ as major p35 phosphorylation sites (33). We also showed that phosphorylation of p35 decreased during brain development and proposed its relationship to age-dependent vulnerability of neurons to stress stimuli (32). Thus, to understand the in vivo regulation of Cdk5 activity, it is critical to analyze the phosphorylation states of p35 in brain. However, there is no convenient method to analyze the precise in vivo phosphorylation status of the endogenous proteins.In this study, we applied the Phos-tag SDS-PAGE method to analyze the phosphorylation states of p35 in vivo and in cultured neurons. We constructed standard band profiles of phosphorylated p35 by Phos-tag SDS-PAGE using Ala mutants at Ser⁸ and/or Thr¹³⁸. From these experiments, we observed an unidentified in vivo phosphorylation site at Ser⁹¹. We quantified the phosphorylation at each site in cultured neurons and brain, providing the first quantitative estimate of the in vivo phosphorylation states of p35. We discuss the usefulness of Phos-tag SDS-PAGE to analyze the in vivo phosphorylation states of proteins.     

Semaphorin3A Signaling Mediated by Fyn-dependent Tyrosine Phosphorylation of Collapsin Response Mediator Protein 2 at Tyrosine 32

Collapsin response mediator protein 2 (CRMP2) is an intracellular protein that mediates signaling of Semaphorin3A (Sema3A), a repulsive axon guidance molecule. Fyn, a Src-type tyrosine kinase, is involved in the Sema3A signaling. However, the relationship between CRMP2 and Fyn in this signaling pathway is still unknown. In our research, we demonstrated that Fyn phosphorylated CRMP2 at Tyr³² residues in HEK293T cells. Immunohistochemical analysis using a phospho-specific antibody at Tyr³² of CRMP showed that Tyr³²-phosphorylated CRMP was abundant in the nervous system, including dorsal root ganglion neurons, the molecular and Purkinje cell layer of adult cerebellum, and hippocampal fimbria. Overexpression of a nonphosphorylated mutant (Tyr³² to Phe³²) of CRMP2 in dorsal root ganglion neurons interfered with Sema3A-induced growth cone collapse response. These results suggest that Fyn-dependent phosphorylation of CRMP2 at Tyr³² is involved in Sema3A signaling.Collapsin response mediator proteins (CRMPs)⁴ have been identified as intracellular proteins that mediate Semaphorin3A (Sema3A) signaling in the nervous system (1). CRMP2 is one of the five members of the CRMP family. CRMPs also mediate signal transduction of NT3, Ephrin, and Reelin (2–4). CRMPs interact with several intracellular molecules, including tubulin, Numb, kinesin1, and Sra1 (5–8). CRMPs are involved in axon guidance, axonal elongation, cell migration, synapse maturation, and the generation of neuronal polarity (1, 2, 4, 5).CRMP family proteins are known to be the major phosphoproteins in the developing brain (1, 9). CRMP2 is phosphorylated by several Ser/Thr kinases, such as Rho kinase, cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (Cdk5), and glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK3β) (2, 10–13). The phosphorylation sites of CRMP2 by these kinases are clustered in the C terminus and have already been identified. Rho kinase phosphorylates CRMP2 at Thr⁵⁵⁵ (10). Cdk5 phosphorylates CRMP2 at Ser⁵²², and this phosphorylation is essential for sequential phosphorylations by GSK3β at Ser⁵¹⁸, Thr⁵¹⁴, and Thr⁵⁰⁹ (2, 11–13). These phosphorylations disrupt the interaction of CRMP2 with tubulin or Numb (2, 3, 13). The sequential phosphorylation of CRMP2 by Cdk5 and GSK3β is an essential step in Sema3A signaling (11, 13). Furthermore, the neurofibrillary tangles in the brains of people with Alzheimer disease contain hyperphosphorylated CRMP2 at Thr⁵⁰⁹, Ser⁵¹⁸, and Ser⁵²² (14, 15).CRMPs are also substrates of several tyrosine kinases. The phosphorylation of CRMP2 by Fes/Fps and Fer has been shown to be involved in Sema3A signaling (16, 17). Phosphorylation of CRMP2 at Tyr⁴⁷⁹ by a Src family tyrosine kinase Yes regulates CXCL12-induced T lymphocyte migration (18). We reported previously that Fyn is involved in Sema3A signaling (19). Fyn associates with PlexinA2, one of the components of the Sema3A receptor complex. Fyn also activates Cdk5 through the phosphorylation at Tyr¹⁵ of Cdk5 (19). In dorsal root ganglion (DRG) neurons from fyn-deficient mice, Sema3A-induced growth cone collapse response is attenuated compared with control mice (19). Furthermore, we recently found that Fyn phosphorylates CRMP1 and that this phosphorylation is involved in Reelin signaling (4). Although it has been shown that CRMP2 is involved in Sema3A signaling (1, 11, 13), the relationship between Fyn and CRMP2 in Sema3A signaling and the tyrosine phosphorylation site(s) of CRMPs remain unknown.Here, we show that Fyn phosphorylates CRMP2 at Tyr³². Using a phospho-specific antibody against Tyr³², we determined that the residue is phosphorylated in vivo. A nonphosphorylated mutant CRMP2Y32F inhibits Sema3A-induced growth cone collapse. These results indicate that tyrosine phosphorylation by Fyn at Tyr³² is involved in Sema3A signaling.     

Commitment and Effector Phases of the Physiological Cell Death Pathway Elucidated with Respect to Bcl-2, Caspase,and Cyclin-Dependent Kinase Activities

Physiological cell deaths occur ubiquitously throughout biology and have common attributes, including apoptotic morphology with mitosis-like chromatin condensation and prelytic genome digestion. The fundamental question is whether a common mechanism of dying underlies these common hallmarks of death. Here we describe evidence of such a conserved mechanism in different cells induced by distinct stimuli to undergo physiological cell death. Our genetic and quantitative biochemical analyses of T- and B-cell deaths reveal a conserved pattern of requisite components. We have dissected the role of cysteine proteases (caspases) in cell death to reflect two obligate classes of cytoplasmic activities functioning in an amplifying cascade, with upstream interleukin-1β-converting enzyme-like proteases activating downstream caspase 3-like caspases. Bcl-2 spares cells from death by punctuating this cascade, preventing the activation of downstream caspases while leaving upstream activity undisturbed. This observation permits an operational definition of the stages of the cell death process. Upstream steps, which are necessary but not themselves lethal, are modulators of the death process. Downstream steps are effectors of, and not dissociable from, actual death; the irreversible commitment to cell death reflects the initiation of this downstream phase. In addition to caspase 3-like proteases, the effector phase of death involves the activation in the nucleus of cell cycle kinases of the cyclin-dependent kinase (Cdk) family. Nuclear recruitment and activation of Cdk components is dependent on the caspase cascade, suggesting that catastrophic Cdk activity may be the actual effector of cell death. The conservation of the cell death mechanism is not reflected in the molecular identity of its individual components, however. For example, we have detected different cyclin-Cdk pairs in different instances of cell death. The ordered course of events that we have observed in distinct cases reflects essential thematic elements of a conserved sequence of modulatory and effector activities comprising a common pathway of physiological cell death.Although interest in the process of physiological cell death has grown enormously in recent years, the mechanism of death has remained enigmatic. While the induction of physiological death in diverse cell types is effected by a wide variety of stimuli, a common morphology, described as apoptosis, ensues in all cases. The commonality of morphology has led to the belief that disparate inducers trigger distinct signaling events which ultimately converge in a common biochemical pathway of death. This hypothesis suggests a division of the biochemical process into upstream events that are specific for individual inducers and downstream steps, comprising the common pathway, which bring about the actual demise of the cell.Since most cell deaths in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans are induced in a lineage-determined program, the simple pathway of death elucidated in that species (17) is likely to be revealing of downstream steps. Cell death in C. elegans is dependent on the activation of Ced3, a cysteine protease (77, 79), and is inhibited by Ced9 (27). In mammalian cells, a group of Ced3 homologs, termed caspases (1), appears to play a role in virtually all of the physiological cell deaths studied to date. These enzymes cleave on the carboxyl-terminal side of aspartate residues within distinct recognition motifs. Each caspase is synthesized as a proenzyme and activated by cleavage at internal sites, potentially by the same or another caspase class (66, 77). This leads to the notion that caspases function in an ordered cascade, with members of one family activating members of the next. Data consistent with this pattern have been obtained from studies in vitro (41, 60, 65).Of the large family of mammalian caspases, caspase 3 is closely homologous to Ced3 and appears to be involved widely in cell deaths (50, 65). Nonetheless, specific caspases seem not to be associated uniquely with distinct cases of death, and gene-targeting experiments reveal that the absence of a single caspase has extremely limited consequences for cell death responsiveness (38, 39).Similarly, a family of ced9-related death response modulatory genes exists in mammals; the most closely related homolog, bcl-2, is functionally interchangeable with ced9 in the worm (28, 73). These gene products do not function in all mammalian cell deaths (61, 72). Moreover, while the products of some bcl-2 gene family members have death-sparing activity (6, 7), others exert the opposite effect (52, 78).Several cellular proteins, among them poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP), nuclear lamins, fodrin, and DNA-dependent protein kinase (10, 16, 34), are targets for cleavage by various caspases. In cells spared from death, for example by Bcl-2, these proteolytic events do not occur (9, 13, 18). Still, the cleavage of none of these proteins has been shown to be essential for the cell death response (42, 54, 74). The specific consequences of caspase activation which are lethal are unknown.It may be that the consequence of protease activity is the specific activation of distinct death effectors. We have proposed that essential genes involved in cell division may be critically involved in cell death as well and that the difficulty in identifying distal effector steps genetically reflects the indispensable function of those gene products in cell life (67). Data from several groups have shown that cell cycle catastrophes, the precocious expression of mitosis-like cyclin-dependent histone kinases (Cdks), are associated with a variety of physiological cell deaths and that the inhibition of death by Bcl-2 is associated with alterations in the expression and localization of these Cdk proteins (22, 23, 29, 36, 40, 46, 47, 58, 59, 70).We have taken advantage of the death-sparing activities of Bcl-2 and two viral caspase inhibitors, CrmA and p35 (64, 77), to dissect the mechanism of cell death in two separate cellular paradigms. These studies allow us to draw a generalized skeletal pathway of the death-associated biochemical activities discussed above and demonstrate the requisite involvement of these different classes of activities in a conserved and ordered pathway by which cells die physiologically.     

Conserved Glutamate Residues Glu-343 and Glu-519 Provide Mechanistic Insights into Cation/Nucleoside Cotransport by Human Concentrative Nucleoside Transporter hCNT3

Human concentrative nucleoside transporter 3 (hCNT3) utilizes electrochemical gradients of both Na⁺ and H⁺ to accumulate pyrimidine and purine nucleosides within cells. We have employed radioisotope flux and electrophysiological techniques in combination with site-directed mutagenesis and heterologous expression in Xenopus oocytes to identify two conserved pore-lining glutamate residues (Glu-343 and Glu-519) with essential roles in hCNT3 Na⁺/nucleoside and H⁺/nucleoside cotransport. Mutation of Glu-343 and Glu-519 to aspartate, glutamine, and cysteine severely compromised hCNT3 transport function, and changes included altered nucleoside and cation activation kinetics (all mutants), loss or impairment of H⁺ dependence (all mutants), shift in Na⁺:nucleoside stoichiometry from 2:1 to 1:1 (E519C), complete loss of catalytic activity (E519Q) and, similar to the corresponding mutant in Na⁺-specific hCNT1, uncoupled Na⁺ currents (E343Q). Consistent with close-proximity integration of cation/solute-binding sites within a common cation/permeant translocation pore, mutation of Glu-343 and Glu-519 also altered hCNT3 nucleoside transport selectivity. Both residues were accessible to the external medium and inhibited by p-chloromercuribenzene sulfonate when converted to cysteine.Physiologic nucleosides and the majority of synthetic nucleoside analogs with antineoplastic and/or antiviral activity are hydrophilic molecules that require specialized plasma membrane nucleoside transporter (NT)³ proteins for transport into or out of cells (1–4). NT-mediated transport is required for nucleoside metabolism by salvage pathways and is a critical determinant of the pharmacologic actions of nucleoside drugs (3–6). By regulating adenosine availability to purinoreceptors, NTs also modulate a diverse array of physiological processes, including neurotransmission, immune responses, platelet aggregation, renal function, and coronary vasodilation (4, 6, 7). Two structurally unrelated NT families of integral membrane proteins exist in human and other mammalian cells and tissues as follows: the SLC28 concentrative nucleoside transporter (CNT) family and the SLC29 equilibrative nucleoside transporter (ENT) family (3, 4, 6, 8, 9). ENTs are normally present in most, possibly all, cell types (4, 6, 8). CNTs, in contrast, are found predominantly in intestinal and renal epithelia and other specialized cell types, where they have important roles in absorption, secretion, distribution, and elimination of nucleosides and nucleoside drugs (1–3, 5, 6, 9).The CNT protein family in humans is represented by three members, hCNT1, hCNT2, and hCNT3. Belonging to a CNT subfamily phylogenetically distinct from hCNT1/2, hCNT3 utilizes electrochemical gradients of both Na⁺ and H⁺ to accumulate a broad range of pyrimidine and purine nucleosides and nucleoside drugs within cells (10, 11). hCNT1 and hCNT2, in contrast, are Na⁺-specific and transport pyrimidine and purine nucleosides, respectively (11–13). Together, hCNT1–3 account for the three major concentrative nucleoside transport processes of human and other mammalian cells. Nonmammalian members of the CNT protein family that have been characterized functionally include hfCNT, a second member of the CNT3 subfamily from the ancient marine prevertebrate the Pacific hagfish Eptatretus stouti (14), CeCNT3 from Caenorhabditis elegans (15), CaCNT from Candida albicans (16), and the bacterial nucleoside transporter NupC from Escherichia coli (17). hfCNT is Na⁺- but not H⁺-coupled, whereas CeCNT3, CaCNT, and NupC are exclusively H⁺-coupled. Na⁺:nucleoside coupling stoichiometries are 1:1 for hCNT1 and hCNT2 and 2:1 for hCNT3 and hfCNT3 (11, 14). H⁺:nucleoside coupling ratios for hCNT3 and CaCNT are 1:1 (11, 16).Although much progress has been made in molecular studies of ENT proteins (4, 6, 8), studies of structurally and functionally important regions and residues within the CNT protein family are still at an early stage. Topological investigations suggest that hCNT1–3 and other eukaryote CNT family members have a 13 (or possibly 15)-transmembrane helix (TM) architecture, and multiple alignments reveal strong sequence similarities within the C-terminal half of the proteins (18). Prokaryotic CNTs lack the first three TMs of their eukaryotic counterparts, and functional expression of N-terminally truncated human and rat CNT1 in Xenopus oocytes has established that these three TMs are not required for Na⁺-dependent uridine transport activity (18). Consistent with this finding, chimeric studies involving hCNT1 and hfCNT (14) and hCNT1 and hCNT3 (19) have demonstrated that residues involved in Na⁺- and H⁺-coupling reside in the C-terminal half of the protein. Present in this region of the transporter, but of unknown function, is a highly conserved (G/A)XKX₃NEFVA(Y/M/F) motif common to all eukaryote and prokaryote CNTs.By virtue of their negative charge and consequent ability to interact directly with coupling cations and/or participate in cation-induced and other protein conformational transitions, glutamate and aspartate residues play key functional and structural roles in a broad spectrum of mammalian and bacterial cation-coupled transporters (20–30). Little, however, is known about their role in CNTs. This study builds upon a recent mutagenesis study of conserved glutamate and aspartate residues in hCNT1 (31) to undertake a parallel in depth investigation of corresponding residues in hCNT3. By employing the multifunctional capability of hCNT3 as a template for these studies, this study provides novel mechanistic insights into the molecular mechanism(s) of CNT-mediated cation/nucleoside cotransport, including the role of the (G/A)XKX₃NEFVA(Y/M/F) motif.     

Printor, a Novel TorsinA-interacting Protein Implicated in Dystonia Pathogenesis

Early onset generalized dystonia (DYT1) is an autosomal dominant neurological disorder caused by deletion of a single glutamate residue (torsinA ΔE) in the C-terminal region of the AAA⁺ (ATPases associated with a variety of cellular activities) protein torsinA. The pathogenic mechanism by which torsinA ΔE mutation leads to dystonia remains unknown. Here we report the identification and characterization of a 628-amino acid novel protein, printor, that interacts with torsinA. Printor co-distributes with torsinA in multiple brain regions and co-localizes with torsinA in the endoplasmic reticulum. Interestingly, printor selectively binds to the ATP-free form but not to the ATP-bound form of torsinA, supporting a role for printor as a cofactor rather than a substrate of torsinA. The interaction of printor with torsinA is completely abolished by the dystonia-associated torsinA ΔE mutation. Our findings suggest that printor is a new component of the DYT1 pathogenic pathway and provide a potential molecular target for therapeutic intervention in dystonia.Early onset generalized torsion dystonia (DYT1) is the most common and severe form of hereditary dystonia, a movement disorder characterized by involuntary movements and sustained muscle spasms (1). This autosomal dominant disease has childhood onset and its dystonic symptoms are thought to result from neuronal dysfunction rather than neurodegeneration (2, 3). Most DYT1 cases are caused by deletion of a single glutamate residue at positions 302 or 303 (torsinA ΔE) of the 332-amino acid protein torsinA (4). In addition, a different torsinA mutation that deletes amino acids Phe³²³–Tyr³²⁸ (torsinA Δ323–328) was identified in a single family with dystonia (5), although the pathogenic significance of this torsinA mutation is unclear because these patients contain a concomitant mutation in another dystonia-related protein, ϵ-sarcoglycan (6). Recently, genetic association studies have implicated polymorphisms in the torsinA gene as a genetic risk factor in the development of adult-onset idiopathic dystonia (7, 8).TorsinA contains an N-terminal endoplasmic reticulum (ER)³ signal sequence and a 20-amino acid hydrophobic region followed by a conserved AAA⁺ (ATPases associated with a variety of cellular activities) domain (9, 10). Because members of the AAA⁺ family are known to facilitate conformational changes in target proteins (11, 12), it has been proposed that torsinA may function as a molecular chaperone (13, 14). TorsinA is widely expressed in brain and multiple other tissues (15) and is primarily associated with the ER and nuclear envelope (NE) compartments in cells (16–20). TorsinA is believed to mainly reside in the lumen of the ER and NE (17–19) and has been shown to bind lamina-associated polypeptide 1 (LAP1) (21), lumenal domain-like LAP1 (LULL1) (21), and nesprins (22). In addition, recent evidence indicates that a significant pool of torsinA exhibits a topology in which the AAA⁺ domain faces the cytoplasm (20). In support of this topology, torsinA is found in the cytoplasm, neuronal processes, and synaptic terminals (2, 3, 15, 23–26) and has been shown to bind cytosolic proteins snapin (27) and kinesin light chain 1 (20). TorsinA has been proposed to play a role in several cellular processes, including dopaminergic neurotransmission (28–31), NE organization and dynamics (17, 22, 32), and protein trafficking (27, 33). However, the precise biological function of torsinA and its regulation remain unknown.To gain insights into torsinA function, we performed yeast two-hybrid screens to search for torsinA-interacting proteins in the brain. We report here the isolation and characterization of a novel protein named printor (protein interactor of torsinA) that interacts selectively with wild-type (WT) torsinA but not the dystonia-associated torsinA ΔE mutant. Our data suggest that printor may serve as a cofactor of torsinA and provide a new molecular target for understanding and treating dystonia.     

Proinsulin and the Genetics of Diabetes Mellitus

Insulin plays a central role in the regulation of vertebrate metabolism. The hormone, the post-translational product of a single-chain precursor, is a globular protein containing two chains, A (21 residues) and B (30 residues). Recent advances in human genetics have identified dominant mutations in the insulin gene causing permanent neonatal-onset DM² (1–4). The mutations are predicted to block folding of the precursor in the ER of pancreatic β-cells. Although expression of the wild-type allele would in other circumstances be sufficient to maintain homeostasis, studies of a corresponding mouse model (5–7) suggest that the misfolded variant perturbs wild-type biosynthesis (8, 9). Impaired β-cell secretion is associated with ER stress, distorted organelle architecture, and cell death (10). These findings have renewed interest in insulin biosynthesis (11–13) and the structural basis of disulfide pairing (14–19). Protein evolution is constrained not only by structure and function but also by susceptibility to toxic misfolding.Insulin plays a central role in the regulation of vertebrate metabolism. The hormone, the post-translational product of a single-chain precursor, is a globular protein containing two chains, A (21 residues) and B (30 residues). Recent advances in human genetics have identified dominant mutations in the insulin gene causing permanent neonatal-onset DM² (1–4). The mutations are predicted to block folding of the precursor in the ER of pancreatic β-cells. Although expression of the wild-type allele would in other circumstances be sufficient to maintain homeostasis, studies of a corresponding mouse model (5–7) suggest that the misfolded variant perturbs wild-type biosynthesis (8, 9). Impaired β-cell secretion is associated with ER stress, distorted organelle architecture, and cell death (10). These findings have renewed interest in insulin biosynthesis (11–13) and the structural basis of disulfide pairing (14–19). Protein evolution is constrained not only by structure and function but also by susceptibility to toxic misfolding.     

Deletion of the Chloride Transporter Slc26a7 Causes Distal Renal Tubular Acidosis and Impairs Gastric Acid Secretion

SLC26A7 (human)/Slc26a7 (mouse) is a recently identified chloride-base exchanger and/or chloride transporter that is expressed on the basolateral membrane of acid-secreting cells in the renal outer medullary collecting duct (OMCD) and in gastric parietal cells. Here, we show that mice with genetic deletion of Slc26a7 expression develop distal renal tubular acidosis, as manifested by metabolic acidosis and alkaline urine pH. In the kidney, basolateral Cl⁻/HCO₃⁻ exchange activity in acid-secreting intercalated cells in the OMCD was significantly decreased in hypertonic medium (a normal milieu for the medulla) but was reduced only mildly in isotonic medium. Changing from a hypertonic to isotonic medium (relative hypotonicity) decreased the membrane abundance of Slc26a7 in kidney cells in vivo and in vitro. In the stomach, stimulated acid secretion was significantly impaired in isolated gastric mucosa and in the intact organ. We propose that SLC26A7 dysfunction should be investigated as a potential cause of unexplained distal renal tubular acidosis or decreased gastric acid secretion in humans.The collecting duct segment of the distal kidney nephron plays a major role in systemic acid base homeostasis by acid secretion and bicarbonate absorption. The acid secretion occurs via H⁺-ATPase and H-K-ATPase into the lumen and bicarbonate is absorbed via basolateral Cl⁻/HCO₃⁻ exchangers (1–4). The tubules, which are located within the outer medullary region of the kidney collecting duct (OMCD),² have the highest rate of acid secretion among the distal tubule segments and are therefore essential to the maintenance of acid base balance (2).The gastric parietal cell is the site of generation of acid and bicarbonate through the action of cytosolic carbonic anhydrase II (5, 6). The intracellular acid is secreted into the lumen via gastric H-K-ATPase, which works in conjunction with a chloride channel and a K⁺ recycling pathway (7–10). The intracellular bicarbonate is transported to the blood via basolateral Cl⁻/HCO₃⁻ exchangers (11–14).SLC26 (human)/Slc26 (mouse) isoforms are members of a conserved family of anion transporters that display tissue-specific patterns of expression in epithelial cells (15–24). Several SLC26 members can function as chloride/bicarbonate exchangers. These include SLC26A3 (DRA), SLC26A4 (pendrin), SLC26A6 (PAT1 or CFEX), SLC26A7, and SLC26A9 (25–31). SLC26A7 and SLC26A9 can also function as chloride channels (32–34).SLC26A7/Slc26a7 is predominantly expressed in the kidney and stomach (28, 29). In the kidney, Slc26a7 co-localizes with AE1, a well-known Cl⁻/HCO₃⁻ exchanger, on the basolateral membrane of (acid-secreting) A-intercalated cells in OMCD cells (29, 35, 36) (supplemental Fig. 1). In the stomach, Slc26a7 co-localizes with AE2, a major Cl⁻/HCO₃⁻ exchanger, on the basolateral membrane of acid secreting parietal cells (28). To address the physiological function of Slc26a7 in the intact mouse, we have generated Slc26a7 ko mice. We report here that Slc26a7 ko mice exhibit distal renal tubular acidosis and impaired gastric acidification in the absence of morphological abnormalities in kidney or stomach.     

Conformational Properties of ��-PrP

Prion propagation involves a conformational transition of the cellular form of prion protein (PrP^C) to a disease-specific isomer (PrP^Sc), shifting from a predominantly α-helical conformation to one dominated by β-sheet structure. This conformational transition is of critical importance in understanding the molecular basis for prion disease. Here, we elucidate the conformational properties of a disulfide-reduced fragment of human PrP spanning residues 91–231 under acidic conditions, using a combination of heteronuclear NMR, analytical ultracentrifugation, and circular dichroism. We find that this form of the protein, which similarly to PrP^Sc, is a potent inhibitor of the 26 S proteasome, assembles into soluble oligomers that have significant β-sheet content. The monomeric precursor to these oligomers exhibits many of the characteristics of a molten globule intermediate with some helical character in regions that form helices I and III in the PrP^C conformation, whereas helix II exhibits little evidence for adopting a helical conformation, suggesting that this region is a likely source of interaction within the initial phases of the transformation to a β-rich conformation. This precursor state is almost as compact as the folded PrP^C structure and, as it assembles, only residues 126–227 are immobilized within the oligomeric structure, leaving the remainder in a mobile, random-coil state.Prion diseases, such as Creutzfeldt-Jacob and Gerstmann-Sträussler-Scheinker in humans, scrapie in sheep, and bovine spongiform encephalopathy in cattle, are fatal neurological disorders associated with the deposition of an abnormally folded form of a host-encoded glycoprotein, prion (PrP)² (1). These diseases may be inherited, arise sporadically, or be acquired through the transmission of an infectious agent (2, 3). The disease-associated form of the protein, termed the scrapie form or PrP^Sc, differs from the normal cellular form (PrP^C) through a conformational change, resulting in a significant increase in the β-sheet content and protease resistance of the protein (3, 4). PrP^C, in contrast, consists of a predominantly α-helical structured domain and an unstructured N-terminal domain, which is capable of binding a number of divalent metals (5–12). A single disulfide bond links two of the main α-helices and forms an integral part of the core of the structured domain (13, 14).According to the protein-only hypothesis (15), the infectious agent is composed of a conformational isomer of PrP (16) that is able to convert other isoforms to the infectious isomer in an autocatalytic manner. Despite numerous studies, little is known about the mechanism of conversion of PrP^C to PrP^Sc. The most coherent and general model proposed thus far is that PrP^C fluctuates between the dominant native state and minor conformations, one or a set of which can self-associate in an ordered manner to produce a stable supramolecular structure composed of misfolded PrP monomers (3, 17). This stable, oligomeric species can then bind to, and stabilize, rare non-native monomer conformations that are structurally complementary. In this manner, new monomeric chains are recruited and the system can propagate.In view of the above model, considerable effort has been devoted to generating and characterizing alternative, possibly PrP^Sc-like, conformations in the hope of identifying common properties or features that facilitate the formation of amyloid oligomers. This has been accomplished either through PrP^Sc-dependent conversion reactions (18–20) or through conversion of PrP^C in the absence of a PrP^Sc template (21–25). The latter approach, using mainly disulfide-oxidized recombinant PrP, has generated a wide range of novel conformations formed under non-physiological conditions where the native state is relatively destabilized. These conformations have ranged from near-native (14, 26, 27), to those that display significant β-sheet content (21, 23, 28–33). The majority of these latter species have shown a high propensity for aggregation, although not all are on-pathway to the formation of amyloid. Many of these non-native states also display some of the characteristics of PrP^Sc, such as increased β-sheet content, protease resistance, and a propensity for oligomerization (28, 29, 31) and some have been claimed to be associated with the disease process (34).One such PrP folding intermediate, termed β-PrP, differs from the majority of studied PrP intermediate states in that it is formed by refolding the PrP molecule from the native α-helical conformation (here termed α-PrP), at acidic pH in a reduced state, with the disulfide bond broken (22, 35). Although no covalent differences between the PrP^C and PrP^Sc have been consistently identified to date, the role of the disulfide bond in prion propagation remains disputed (25, 36–39). β-PrP is rich in β-sheet structure (22, 35), and displays many of the characteristics of a PrP^Sc-like precursor molecule, such as partial resistance to proteinase K digestion, and the ability to form amyloid fibrils in the presence of physiological concentrations of salts (40).The β-PrP species previously characterized, spanning residues 91–231 of PrP, was soluble at low ionic strength buffers and monomeric, according to elution volume on gel filtration (22). NMR analysis showed that it displayed radically different spectra to those of α-PrP, with considerably fewer observable peaks and markedly reduced chemical shift dispersion. Data from circular dichroism experiments showed that fixed side chain (tertiary) interactions were lost, in contrast to the well defined β-sheet secondary structure, and thus in conjunction with the NMR data, indicated that β-PrP possessed a number of characteristics associated with a “molten globule” folding intermediate (22). Such states have been proposed to be important in amyloid and fibril formation (41). Indeed, antibodies raised against β-PrP (e.g. ICSM33) are capable of recognizing native PrP^Sc (but not PrP^C) (42–44). Subsequently, a related study examining the role of the disulfide bond in PrP folding confirmed that a monomeric molten globule-like form of PrP was formed on refolding the disulfide-reduced protein at acidic pH, but reported that, under their conditions, the circular dichroism response interpreted as β-sheet structure was associated with protein oligomerization (45). Indeed, atomic force microscopy on oligomeric full-length β-PrP (residues 23–231) shows small, round particles, showing that it is capable of formation of oligomers without forming fibrils (35). Notably, however, salt-induced oligomeric β-PrP has been shown to be a potent inhibitor of the 26 S proteasome, in a similar manner to PrP^Sc (46). Impairment of the ubiquitin-proteasome system in vivo has been linked to prion neuropathology in prion-infected mice (46).Although the global properties of several PrP intermediate states have been determined (30–32, 35), no information on their conformational properties on a sequence-specific basis has been obtained. Their conformational properties are considered important, as the elucidation of the chain conformation may provide information on the way in which these chains pack in the assembly process, and also potentially provide clues on the mechanism of amyloid assembly and the phenomenon of prion strains. As the conformational fluctuations and heterogeneity of molten globule states give rise to broad NMR spectra that preclude direct observation of their conformational properties by NMR (47–50), here we use denaturant titration experiments to determine the conformational properties of β-PrP, through the population of the unfolded state that is visible by NMR. In addition, we use circular dichroism and analytical ultracentrifugation to examine the global structural properties, and the distribution of multimeric species that are formed from β-PrP.     

Calcium Elevation in Mitochondria Is the Main Ca2+ Requirement for Mitochondrial Permeability Transition Pore (mPTP) Opening

We have investigated in detail the role of intra-organelle Ca²⁺ content during induction of apoptosis by the oxidant menadione while changing and monitoring the Ca²⁺ load of endoplasmic reticulum (ER), mitochondria, and acidic organelles. Menadione causes production of reactive oxygen species, induction of oxidative stress, and subsequently apoptosis. In both pancreatic acinar and pancreatic tumor AR42J cells, menadione was found to induce repetitive cytosolic Ca²⁺ responses because of the release of Ca²⁺ from both ER and acidic stores. Ca²⁺ responses to menadione were accompanied by elevation of Ca²⁺ in mitochondria, mitochondrial depolarization, and mitochondrial permeability transition pore (mPTP) opening. Emptying of both the ER and acidic Ca²⁺ stores did not necessarily prevent menadione-induced apoptosis. High mitochondrial Ca²⁺ at the time of menadione application was the major factor determining cell fate. However, if mitochondria were prevented from loading with Ca²⁺ with 10 μm RU360, then caspase-9 activation did not occur irrespective of the content of other Ca²⁺ stores. These results were confirmed by ratiometric measurements of intramitochondrial Ca²⁺ with pericam. We conclude that elevated Ca²⁺ in mitochondria is the crucial factor in determining whether cells undergo oxidative stress-induced apoptosis.Apoptosis, a mechanism of programmed cell death, usually occurs through intrinsic or extrinsic apoptotic pathways. The caspases involved in apoptosis can be split into two groups, the initiator caspases such as caspase-9 and effector caspases such as caspase-3. Effector caspases are activated by initiator caspases and mediate many of the morphological cellular changes associated with apoptosis (1).Calcium is an important signaling ion involved in the regulation of many physiological as well as pathological cellular responses (2). In the pancreas, we have shown that Ca²⁺ signals elicit enzyme secretion (3), apoptosis (4–6), and pathological intracellular activation of digestive enzymes (7). As such, there must be mechanisms in place by which the cell can differentiate between apoptotic and non-apoptotic Ca²⁺ signals.The spatiotemporal pattern of calcium signaling is crucial for the specificity of cellular responses. For example, repetitive cytosolic calcium spikes confined to the apical region of the pancreatic acinar cell are elicited by physiological stimulation with acetylcholine (ACh) or cholecystokinin (CCK) and result in physiological secretion of zymogen granules (8, 9). However, a sustained global increase in free cytosolic Ca²⁺ induced by supramaximal stimulation with CCK, which resembles prolonged hyperstimulation of pancreatic acinar cells in the pathophysiology of acute pancreatitis, can lead to premature activation of digestive enzymes and vacuole formation within the cell (10–12). Alternatively, global repetitive calcium spikes induced in the pancreatic acinar cell in response to oxidant stress can lead to induction of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore (mPTP)⁴ and apoptosis (4, 5, 13).To understand the role of calcium in apoptosis, several investigators have examined the influence of intracellular stores on the molding of calcium signals that lead to cell death (14–16). It has been well established in a range of cell types that the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) is the major intracellular calcium store required for induction of apoptosis. Pinton et al. (17) have shown that decreasing ER Ca²⁺ concentration with tBuBHQ increased HeLa cell survival in response to oxidant stress induced by ceramide. Scorrano and Korsmeyer (18) also observed that double knock-out Bax and Bak (pro-apoptotic proteins) mouse fibroblasts displayed a reduced resting concentration of ER Ca²⁺ compared with wild type and were resistant to induction of apoptosis by various stimulants, including ceramide. These important studies strongly suggest that the concentration of Ca²⁺ in the ER is a critical determinant of cellular susceptibility to apoptotic stimuli in the cell types studied.A key event in early apoptosis is permeabilization of the mitochondrial membrane. The mPTP is a pore whose molecular composition is still debated (19). Activation of an open pore state can result in swelling of the mitochondrial matrix and release of the apoptogenic proteins from the intermembrane space (20).One important activator of the mPTP is Ca²⁺ (20–22), a function which implicates Ca²⁺ in the initiation of apoptosis (23, 24). Once Ca²⁺ is released from the ER into the cytoplasm, mitochondria take up part of the released Ca²⁺ to prevent propagation of large calcium waves (25–27). This influx is followed by calcium efflux from the mitochondria back into the cytosol (28, 29). An increase in mitochondrial Ca²⁺ concentration in response to physiological stimuli induces increased activity of the mitochondrial respiratory chain and the synthesis of ATP to meet with increasing energy demands on the cell. When mitochondria are exposed to a pathological overload of calcium, opening of the mPTP is triggered, leading to mitochondrial dysfunction and eventually cell death. The mechanism through which calcium can trigger mPTP opening is still unclear and may involve cyclophilin D (30) and voltage-dependent anion channel (31). The mitochondria are endowed with selective and efficient calcium uptake (a calcium-selective uniporter) and release mechanisms (Ca²⁺/Na exchanger, Ca²⁺/H⁺ exchanger, and mPTP) (16, 29, 32, 33).Oxidant stress is a well known inducer of apoptosis in several cell types (34) and is thought to play an important role in the pathogenesis of acute pancreatitis (35). We have used the quinone compound menadione to induce oxidative stress in the pancreatic acinar cell. Menadione is metabolized by flavoprotein reductase to semiquinone and then is oxidized back to quinone, resulting in generation of superoxide anion radicals, hydrogen peroxide, and other reactive oxygen species (ROS) (36). In vivo, menadione causes depolarization and swelling of the mitochondria (37). In pancreatic acinar cells, treatment with menadione not only produces an increase in ROS, but has also been found to evoke cytosolic Ca²⁺ responses, mPTP opening, activation of caspases and apoptotic cell death (4, 5). When cells were pretreated with the calcium chelator BAPTA-AM, menadione was unable to induce apoptosis, indicating that oxidant stress-induced apoptosis in the pancreatic acinar cell is highly calcium-dependent. Here we show that in pancreatic acinar cells, oxidative stress-induced apoptosis is strongly dependent on the Ca²⁺ concentration within mitochondria at the time of ROS production.