噬菌体吸附及受体结合蛋白 (RBP) 的研究进展与应用

噬菌体通过受体结合蛋白(Receptor binding protein,RBP)结合到细菌表面,其过程需要复杂的原子结构的参与和构象改变。针对噬菌体侵染,细菌发展了多种抗性机制,同时,噬菌体也进化出多种逃逸宿主抗性的机制。对噬菌体与细菌间"吸附-抗吸附-逃逸过程"的探索有助于我们理解噬菌体与细菌共进化的过程,对科学发展噬菌体治疗技术以及噬菌体的生物应用技术具有重要意义。本文概述了噬菌体吸附相关蛋白及吸附发生过程、基于RBP改变的噬菌体逃逸机制和RBP相关的生物技术研究进展。     

噬菌体治疗中细菌对噬菌体的抗性

抗生素治疗尽管有几十年有效治疗的历史,但随着越来越多耐/抗药性细菌的出现,细菌对抗生素的抗药性已成为一个大问题。噬菌体治疗是使用噬菌体作为抗菌剂来感染细菌株系,它一直是人们倡导的一个很有前途的常规抗生素治疗的替代方案。然而,由于细菌与噬菌体的协同进化中,细菌可以通过多种机制获得对噬菌体的抗性。因此,人们对噬菌体治疗抱有期望的同时,也关注噬菌体治疗长时间的使用之后,是否会与抗生素使用之后结果相类似,导致抗性细菌病原菌感染的治疗困难。综述了细菌-噬菌体协同进化中细菌病原菌对有感染能力的噬菌体是否会产生抗性,及其在噬菌体治疗中影响的争论,并展望了噬菌体治疗的潜在前景。     

CRISPR-Cas系统与细菌和噬菌体的共进化

细菌在适应噬菌体攻击的过程中,进化了多种防御系统,噬菌体在细菌的选择压力下,也在不断进化反防御策略,双方的这种进化关系与发生机制一直尚不完全清楚。近年在细菌和古细菌中发现一种新的免疫防御系统,即CRISPR-Cas(clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats-CRISPR-associated system)系统。在对其功能和作用机制深入研究的同时,也不断地揭示了细菌和噬菌体之间的共进化关系。为此,文章在介绍原核细胞中CRISPR-Cas系统介导的免疫机制基础上,重点综述了CRISPR系统在细菌和噬菌体进化中的作用。     

细菌与噬菌体相互抵抗机制研究进展

噬菌体作为一种侵染细菌的病毒,能够特异性识别宿主细菌。近年来,抗生素的过度使用导致耐药细菌的出现,噬菌体有望成为对抗耐药细菌的新武器。在细菌与噬菌体长期共进化过程中,二者都演化出一系列抵御策略。本文从抑制噬菌体吸附、阻止噬菌体DNA进入、切割噬菌体基因组、流产感染以及群体感应对噬菌体的调控等方面,对细菌抵抗噬菌体的机制以及噬菌体应对细菌的策略进行了综述,同时还列举了细菌和噬菌体相互抵抗机制的检测方法,以期为噬菌体在细菌控制中的应用以及探究细菌抵抗噬菌体的机制提供理论依据。     

裂解或溶源-细菌遭遇噬菌体后的命运抉择

噬菌体是地球上数量最丰富的有机体,其在自然生态系统的塑造和细菌进化驱动中发挥着至关重要的作用。在与宿主的相互斗争中,噬菌体可以选择以下2种方式决定其与宿主的命运：（1）裂解：通过裂解宿主细胞最终大量释放噬菌体颗粒;（2）溶原：将其染色体整合到宿主细胞基因组中,与宿主建立一种潜在的互存关系。对于一些温和的噬菌体,这种倾向进一步受到感染多样性的调节,其中单一感染主要是裂解性的,而多重感染则多是溶原性的。溶原性的噬菌体不仅可以根据外界环境的理化因子,还可以通过细菌自身的群体感应系统来启动裂解-溶原开关,进而决定其宿主菌的命运。与此同时,宿主细菌在与噬菌体长时间的斗争中也进化出了针对噬菌体的手段。总而言之,噬菌体深刻影响着细菌的群落动态、基因组进化和生态系统等,而这一切都取决于噬菌体与宿主间的斗争模式（裂解/溶原性感染）。本文探讨了导致温和噬菌体对宿主菌进行裂解-溶原命运抉择的影响因素并系统性总结了细菌在面对噬菌体侵染时的应对策略的最新研究进展,以期能为噬菌体与宿主的研究提供建议和帮助。     

基因工程技术在建立噬菌体抗性机制研究中的应用

在自然发生的噬菌体抗性机制的基础上,应用基因工程技术可以建立广泛的噬菌体抗性机制,为有效解决噬菌体感染问题提供了新的策略。噬菌体编码的抗性、反义RNA技术、自杀陷阱及限制/修饰系统的应用是近年来发展起来的几种抗噬菌体策略,着重对其作用机制、研究进展及其意义作一介绍。同时指出应用基因工程技术构建的噬菌体抗性菌株应用于食品发酵工业中所存在的问题,并对其应用前景作了展望。     

细菌毒素-抗毒素系统在噬菌体流产感染中的作用北大核心CSCD

细菌常受到数量众多的噬菌体感染,宿主细菌在和噬菌体竞赛中进化出多样化的分子策略,流产感染(abortive infection,Abi)是其中之一。毒素-抗毒素系统(toxin-antitoxin system,TA)会在细菌受到压力胁迫时表达并介导细菌的低代谢甚至休眠,还能直接减少子代噬菌体形成。此外,部分毒素序列和结构与Cas蛋白高度同源,噬菌体甚至会编码抗毒素类似物来阻遏对应毒素的活性。这表明流产感染中细菌死亡过程导致的噬菌体感染失败与TA功能高度重合,TA可能是噬菌体侵染宿主的主要阻力和防御力量之一。文中基于TA系统的分类和功能,对参与噬菌体流产感染的TA系统进行了综述,并预测具有流产功能的TA系统和其在抗生素开发和疾病治疗中的应用前景。这有助于认识细菌-噬菌体相互作用,并指导噬菌体治疗和合成生物学。     

卡那霉素链霉菌噬菌体sKJl——温和性噬菌体

从土壤中分离出一株卡那霉素链霉菌噬菌体SKJl,该噬菌体在卡那霉素链霉菌及林肯链霉菌菌苔上产生混浊的噬菌斑。从噬斑中长出的菌落后代对SKJl噬菌体的感染产生了抗性。单株传代未见自发释放游离噬菌体。紫外线照射亦未发现诱导现象。抗性菌株经10ug／ml丝裂霉素C处理后,其中一株能释放出约5．9×103pfu／ml游离噬菌体颗粒,推测这些抗性菌株可能是溶源性菌株。菌落原位杂交实验证实抗性菌株的DNA与SKJl噬菌体DNA有同源性,说明这些抗性菌株已被SKjL噬菌体溶源化,从而确证SKJl噬菌体为一温和性噬菌体。     

细菌的噬菌体感染抗性机制

噬菌体广泛存在于生态环境中。细菌在与噬菌体长期的共进化过程中,衍化出了多种针对噬茵体感染的抗性机制。我们从宿主菌的抑制吸附、阻止噬菌体DNA注入、切断噬菌体DNA和影响其功能及流产感染等方面,对宿主菌抵抗噬菌体感染的机制进行了综述。     

卡那霉素链霉菌噬菌体SKJ1—温和性噬菌体

从土壤中分离出一株卡那霉素链霉菌噬菌体ＳＫＪ１,该噬菌体在卡那霉素链霉菌及林肯链霉菌菌苔上产生混浊的噬菌斑。从噬斑中长出的菌落后代对ＳＫＪ１噬菌体的感染产生了抗性。单株传代未风自发释放游离噬菌体。紫外线照射亦未发现诱导现象。抗性菌株经１０μｇ／ｍｌ丝裂霉素Ｃ处理后,其中一株能释放出约５．９×１０＾３ｐｆｕ／ｍｌ游离噬菌体颗粒,推测这些抗性菌株可能是溶源性菌株。菌落原位杂交实验证实抗性菌株的ＤＮＡ与     

Rapid and quantitative automated measurement of bacteriophage activity against cystic fibrosis isolates of Pseudomonas aeruginosa

Introduction: Pseudomonas aeruginosa is an opportunistic pathogen and is the main cause of respiratory infection in cystic fibrosis patients. Most strains prevalent within the UK are resistant to two or more antibiotics leading to the search for new therapeutic strategies including the use of bacteriophages. Methods and Results: The infectivity of four bacteriophages was increased using an enhancement protocol based on the use of pomegranate rind extract. Their efficacy against 14 Ps. aeruginosa strains was measured using a qualitative streak test and a novel quantitative assay based on the Bioscreen C microbial growth analyzer. Streak test analysis illustrated an increase in the lytic activity of enhanced bacteriophages, whereas Bioscreen analysis showed that both enhanced and unenhanced bacteriophages failed to meet acceptable levels of activity in c. 50% of strains tested. Conclusions: The quantitative Bioscreen C analyzer showed comparable but not identical results in phage activity and identified significant bacterial re‐growth by 20 h postinfection. Significance and Impact of the Study: With the resurgence of interest in bacteriophage therapy against infectious bacterial diseases, a rapid high throughput quantitative method for screening phage activity and bacterial resistance is required. The use of the Bioscreen C analyzer meets these criteria and was shown to be more stringent than the traditional streak test.     

噬菌体裂解酶应用研究进展

近年来,随着抗生素的滥用,导致多重耐药性菌株出现的频率加快。因细菌感染导致死亡的人数逐年增多,人类健康面临巨大挑战,因此研制新型抗菌药物刻不容缓。噬菌体裂解酶因其高效的杀菌能力及高度的宿主专一性而成为新一代抗菌制剂的候选之一。其是一种细胞壁水解酶,在双链DNA噬菌体复制后期被合成,通过水解细胞壁肽聚糖上的化学键,从而裂解细菌细胞壁,释放出子代噬菌体。本文系统地介绍了噬菌体裂解酶的研究进展,为相关裂解酶抗菌药物的研发做出有益探索。     

Engineering lactic acid bacteria for increased industrial functionality

Based on their spoilage-preventing and flavor-contributing characteristics, lactic acid bacteria (LAB) are employed as starter cultures for the fermentation of foods and feeds. In addition, several specific LAB strains are marketed on basis of their beneficial effects on the consumer's health, representing an explosively growing market for the products containing these so-called probiotics. Due to this extensive industrial use there is a strong interest in unraveling the molecular mechanisms involved in industrial robustness, cognate stress resistance, and health-promoting phenotypes of these LAB that may vary drastically between different starter and probiotic strains currently marketed. This review describes some of the post-genomic tools developed, as well as their employment for the identification of bacterial effector molecules involved in the aforementioned industrially relevant phenotypes. Furthermore, it addresses possible strategies to exploit such knowledge into the rational design of LAB strains with increased industrial functionality.     

Bacteriophage contamination: is there a simple method to reduce its deleterious effects in laboratory cultures and biotechnological factories?

Infection of bacterial cultures by bacteriophages as well as prophage induction in the host cells are serious problems in both research and biotechnological laboratories. Generally, prevention strategies (like good laboratory/factory hygiene, sterilisation, decontamination and disinfection) are necessary to avoid bacteriophage contamination. However, it is well known that no matter how good the laboratory/factory practice and hygiene are, bacteriophage infections occur from time to time. The use of immunised or resistant bacterial strains against specific phages may be helpful, but properties of the genetically modified strains resistant to phages are often worse (from the point of view of a researcher or a biotechnological company) than those of the parental, phage-sensitive strains. In this article we review recent results that may provide a simple way to minimise deleterious effects of bacteriophage infection and prophage induction. It appears that low bacterial growth rates result in a significant inhibition of lytic development of various bacteriophages. Moreover, spontaneous prophage induction is less frequent in slowly growing bacteria.     

噬菌体治疗肺炎克雷伯菌感染的研究进展

肺炎克雷伯菌是肠杆菌科家族中的一员,在各种环境中广泛存在,可导致诸如奶牛乳房炎在内的多种动物疫病,引起人类的肺炎、尿路感染、菌血症、伤口性感染和化脓性脓肿在内的多种临床感染。该菌对抗生素的耐受日趋严重,而且高毒力菌株不断出现,给该菌的防控带来了巨大挑战。噬菌体是一种裂解细菌的病毒,因其具有治疗耐药细菌感染的潜力而备受关注,世界各地均有使用噬菌体成功治疗耐药细菌感染的案例。本文基于国内外对肺炎克雷伯菌及其噬菌体的研究数据,综述了肺炎克雷伯菌的流行病学调查情况和噬菌体在治疗肺炎克雷伯菌感染方面的应用,以期为基于肺炎克雷伯菌噬菌体的抗菌研究和临床应用提供参考。     

Bacteriophage-resistance systems in dairy starter strains: molecular analysis to application

Starter inhibition by bacteriophage infection in dairy fermentations can limit the usage of specific bacterial strains used in the manufacture of Cheddar, Mozzarella and other cheeses and can result in substantial economic losses. A variety of practical measures to alleviate the problem of phage infection have been adopted over the years but has invariably resulted in a very limited number of strains which can withstand intensive usage in industry. The application of genetic techniques to improve the phage-resistance of starter cultures for dairy fermentations has been intensively studied for the last 20 years to a point where this approach now has significant potential to alleviate the problem. This paper highlights the recent findings and developments that have been described in the literature that will have an impact on improvement of the phage-resistance of starter cultures.     

Therapeutic bacteriophages as a rescue treatment for drug-resistant infections – an in vivo studies overview

Bacteriophages, highly prevalent in all environments, have found their use in medicine as an alternative or complement to antibiotics. The therapeutic use of bacteriophages was particularly popular in the 1920s and 1930s, until the discovery and introduction of antibiotics. Due to the dynamic growth of antibiotic resistance among bacterial strains, numerous international institutions (such as the FDA) have declared the search for novel treatment modalities to be of the highest priority. To date, bacteriophage therapy has not been registered for general use in Western countries. The regulation of biological medicinal products (within medicinal product regulation) does not contain a specific documentation frame for bacteriophages (only for vaccines, blood derived products, etc.) which, as active substances, need to meet specific requirements. Recently, the FDA allowed bacteriophage therapy to be used in the United States, via the Emergency Investigational New Drug scheme; clinical trials to compare the safety and efficacy of bacteriophage therapy are also permitted. To date, several therapeutic products of this type have made it to phase I or II; some clinical programmes have also been completed. This article cites numerous animal model studies and registered clinical trials, showing the safety and effectiveness of bacteriophage therapy, including infections caused by bacterial strains resistant to antibiotic treatment.     

Improvement of phage defence in Lactococcus lactis by introduction of the plasmid encoded restriction and modification system LlaAI

AIMS: To study the ability of the plasmid-encoded restriction and modification (R/M) system LlaAI to function as a bacteriophage resistance mechanism in Lactococcus lactis during milk fermentations. METHODS AND RESULTS: Plasmid pAIcat4, carrying the R/M system LlaAI and a chloramphenicol resistance cassette, was introduced into the plasmid-free strain L. lactis MG1614 and the industrial strain L. lactis 964. By measuring changes in conductivity the influence of different phage on the growth was determined. CONCLUSIONS: The plasmid-encoded R/M system LlaAI significantly improves the bacteriophage resistance of L. lactis during milk fermentations. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY: It is essential to determine the potential of a phage defence mechanism in L. lactis starter culture strains during growth in milk before steps are taken to improve starter cultures. This study shows that LlaAI is useful for improvement of starter cultures.