Microsatellite characterization of Andean races of common bean (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Phaseolus vulgaris</Emphasis> L.)

The Andean gene pool of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) has high levels of morphological diversity in terms of seed color and size, growth habit and agro-ecological adaptation, but previously was characterized by low levels of molecular marker diversity. Three races have been described within the Andean gene pool: Chile, Nueva Granada and Peru. The objective of this study was to characterize a collection of 123 genotypes representing Andean bean diversity with 33 microsatellite markers that have been useful for characterizing race structure in common beans. The genotypes were from both the primary center of origin as well as secondary centers of diversity to which Andean beans spread and represented all three races of the gene pool. In addition we evaluated a collection of landraces from Colombia to determine if the Nueva Granada and Peru races could be distinguished in genotypes from the northern range of the primary center. Multiple correspondence analyses of the Andean race representatives identified two predominant groups corresponding to the Nueva Granada and Peru races. Some of the Chile race representatives formed a separate group but several that had been defined previously as from this race grouped with the other races. Gene flow was more notable between Nueva Granada and Peru races than between these races and the Chile race. Among the Colombian genotypes, the Nueva Granada and Peru races were identified and introgression between these two races was especially notable. The genetic diversity within the Colombian genotypes was high, reaffirming the importance of this region as an important source of germplasm. Results of this study suggest that the morphological classification of all climbing beans as Peru race genotypes and all bush beans as Nueva Granada race genotypes is erroneous and that growth habit traits have been mixed in both races, requiring a re-adjustment in the concept of morphological races in Andean beans.     

Genetic diversity,seed size associations and population structure of a core collection of common beans (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Phaseolus vulgaris</Emphasis> L.)

Cultivated common bean germplasm is especially diverse due to the parallel domestication of two genepools in the Mesoamerican and Andean centers of diversity and introgression between these gene pools. Classification into morphological races has helped to provide a framework for utilization of this cultivated germplasm. Meanwhile, core collections along with molecular markers are useful tools for organizing and analyzing representative sets of these genotypes. In this study, we evaluated 604 accessions from the CIAT core germplasm collection representing wide genetic variability from both primary and secondary centers of diversity with a newly developed, fluorescent microsatellite marker set of 36 genomic and gene-based SSRs to determine molecular diversity and with seed protein analysis to determine phaseolin alleles. The entire collection could be divided into two genepools and five predominant races with the division between the Mesoamerica race and the Durango–Jalisco group showing strong support within the Mesoamerican genepool and the Nueva Granada and Peru races showing less diversity overall and some between-group admixture within the Andean genepool. The Chile race could not be distinguished within the Andean genepool but there was support for the Guatemala race within the Mesoamerican genepool and this race was unique in its high level of diversity and distance from other Mesoamerican races. Based on this population structure, significant associations were found between SSR loci and seed size characteristics, some on the same linkage group as the phaseolin locus, which previously had been associated with seed size, or in other regions of the genome. In conclusion, this study has shown that common bean has very significant population structure that can help guide the construction of genetic crosses that maximize diversity as well as serving as a basis for additional association studies.     

SNP marker diversity in common bean (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Phaseolus vulgaris</Emphasis> L.)

Single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers have become a genetic technology of choice because of their automation and high precision of allele calls. In this study, our goal was to develop 94 SNPs and test them across well-chosen common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) germplasm. We validated and accessed SNP diversity at 84 gene-based and 10 non-genic loci using KASPar technology in a panel of 70 genotypes that have been used as parents of mapping populations and have been previously evaluated for SSRs. SNPs exhibited high levels of genetic diversity, an excess of middle frequency polymorphism, and a within-genepool mismatch distribution as expected for populations affected by sudden demographic expansions after domestication bottlenecks. This set of markers was useful for distinguishing Andean and Mesoamerican genotypes but less useful for distinguishing within each gene pool. In summary, slightly greater polymorphism and race structure was found within the Andean gene pool than within the Mesoamerican gene pool but polymorphism rate between genotypes was consistent with genepool and race identity. Our survey results represent a baseline for the choice of SNP markers for future applications because gene-associated SNPs could themselves be causative SNPs for traits. Finally, we discuss that the ideal genetic marker combination with which to carry out diversity, mapping and association studies in common bean should consider a mix of both SNP and SSR markers.     

Nucleotide diversity of a genomic sequence similar to <Emphasis Type="Italic">SHATTERPROOF</Emphasis> (<Emphasis Type="Italic">PvSHP1</Emphasis>) in domesticated and wild common bean (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Phaseolus vulgaris</Emphasis> L.)

Evolutionary studies in plant and animal breeding are aimed at understanding the structure and organization of genetic variations of species. We have identified and characterized a genomic sequence in Phaseolus vulgaris of 1,200 bp (PvSHP1) that is homologous to SHATTERPROOF-1 (SHP1), a gene involved in control of fruit shattering in Arabidopsis thaliana. The PvSHP1 fragment was mapped to chromosome Pv06 in P. vulgaris and is linked to the flower and seed color gene V. Amplification of the PvSHP1 sequence from the most agronomically important legume species showed a high degree of interspecies diversity in the introns within the Phaseoleae, while the coding region was conserved across distant taxa. Sequencing of the PvSHP1 sequence in a sample of 91 wild and domesticated genotypes that span the geographic distribution of this species in the centers of origin showed that PvSHP1 is highly polymorphic and, therefore, particularly useful to further investigate the origin and domestication history of P. vulgaris. Our data confirm the gene pool structure seen in P. vulgaris along with independent domestication processes in the Andes and Mesoamerica; they provide additional evidence for a single domestication event in Mesoamerica. Moreover, our results support the Mesoamerican origin of this species. Finally, we have developed three indel-spanning markers that will be very useful for bean germplasm characterization, and particularly to trace the distribution of the domesticated Andean and Mesoamerican gene pools.     

Patterns of genetic diversity in the Andean gene pool of common bean reveal a candidate domestication gene

Most studies on the genetic diversity of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) have focussed on accessions from the Mesoamerican gene pool compared to the Andean gene pool. A deeper knowledge of the genetic structure of Argentinian germplasm would enable researchers to determine how the Andean domestication event affected patterns of genetic diversity in domesticated beans and to identify candidates for genes targeted by selection during the evolution of the cultivated common bean. A collection of 116 wild and domesticated accessions representing the diversity of the Andean bean in Argentina was genotyped by means of 114 simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers. Forty-seven Mesoamerican bean accessions and 16 Andean bean accessions representing the diversity of Andean landraces and wild accessions were also included. Using the Bayesian algorithm implemented in the software STRUCTURE we identified five major groups that correspond to Mesoamerican and Argentinian wild accessions and landraces and a group that corresponds to accessions from different Andean and Mesoamerican countries. The neighbour-joining algorithm and principal coordinate clustering analysis confirmed the genetic relationships among accessions observed with the STRUCTURE analysis. Argentinian accessions showed a substantial genetic variation with a considerable number of unique haplotypes and private alleles, suggesting that they may have played an important role in the evolution of the species. The results of statistical analyses aimed at identifying genomic regions with consistent patterns of variation were significant for 35 loci (~20 % of the SSRs used in the Argentinian accessions). One of these loci mapped in or near the genomic region of the glutamate decarboxylase gene. Our data characterize the population structure of the Argentinian germplasm. This information on its diversity will be very valuable for use in introgressing Argentinian genes into commercial varieties because the majority of present-day common bean varieties are of Andean origin.     

Characterization of resistance to the bean weevil <Emphasis Type="Italic">Acanthoscelides obtectus</Emphasis> Say, 1831 (Coleoptera: Bruchidae) in common bean genotypes

The bean weevil Acanthoscelides obtectus (Say, 1831) (Coleoptera: Bruchidae) is one of the most serious pests of stored beans worldwide because of the damage it causes to grains within warehouses. The use of resistant genotypes may offer a control strategy for this pest. In the current study, we screened common bean genotypes of Andean American and Mesoamerican origin in laboratory and greenhouse bioassays to select the most promising beans for resistance to the bean weevil. In the laboratory, we evaluated number of eggs, period of development (egg-adult), number of emerged adults, dry weight of adults, and weight of consumed grains. In the greenhouse, number of pods per plant and number of grains per pod were evaluated. We also assessed the percentages of damaged pods per plant and damaged grains per pod. Combining the results obtained in the laboratory and greenhouse assays, the common bean genotypes Arc.1, Arc.2, Arc.1S, Arc.5S, and Arc.3S were identified as resistance expressing antibiosis against A. obtectus. The lowest percentages of damaged pods were found in the Arc.1 and Arc.1S genotypes, and their resistance to damage was apparently morphological (antixenotic) because they possessed structures that prevented contact between larvae and grains. The use of resistant genotypes in combination with other techniques may improve management of the weevil. Additionally, the resistant genotypes identified here can be used in breeding programs to develop common bean lines with resistance to A. obtectus.     

Microsatellite variation in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Avena sterilis</Emphasis> oat germplasm

The Avena sterilis L. collection in the Plant Gene Resources of Canada (PGRC) consists of 11,235 accessions originating from 27 countries and is an invaluable source of genetic variation for genetic improvement of oats, but it has been inadequately characterized, particularly using molecular techniques. More than 35 accessions have been identified with genes for resistance to oat crown and stem rusts, but little is known about their comparative genetic diversity. This study attempted to characterize a structured sample of 369 accessions representing 26 countries and two specific groups with Puccinia coronata avenae (Pc) and Puccinia graminis avenae (Pg) resistance genes using microsatellite (SSR) markers. Screening of 230 SSR primer pairs developed from other major crop species yielded 26 informative primer pairs for this characterization. These 26 primer pairs were applied to screen all the samples and 125 detected alleles were scored for each accession. Analyses of the SSR data showed the effectiveness of the stratified sampling applied in capturing country-wise SSR variation. The frequencies of polymorphic alleles ranged from 0.01 to 0.99 and averaged 0.28. More than 90% of the SSR variation resided within accessions of a country. Accessions from Greece, Liberia, and Italy were genetically most diverse, while accessions from Egypt, Georgia, Ethiopia, Gibraltar, and Kenya were most distinct. Seven major clusters were identified, each consisting of accessions from multiple countries and specific groups, and these clusters were not well congruent with geographic origins. Accessions with Pc and Pg genes had similar levels of SSR variation, did not appear to cluster together, and were not associated with the other representative accessions. These SSR patterns are significant for understanding the progenitor species of cultivated oat, managing A. sterilis germplasm, and exploring new sources of genes for oat improvement.     

Assessment of genetic diversity and DNA profiling of linseed (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Linum usitatissimum</Emphasis> subsp. <Emphasis Type="Italic">usitatissimum</Emphasis> L.) germplasm using SSR markers

Access to genetic diversity is essential for any progress in adapting linseed (Linum usitatissimum subsp. usitatissimum L.) cultivation to changing environmental conditions or to the changing market needs. An attempt has been made in the present study to assess genetic diversity in 96 genotypes of linseed including varieties, landraces and exotic material. A total of 38 SSR primers amplified 153 alleles with 4.0 alleles per marker locus. The number of alleles ranged from 2 to 15 and the observed polymorphism ranged from 50 to 100%. Average genetic dissimilarity ranged from 2 to 50%. In order to analyze the efficiency for unambiguous identification of linseed germplasm, various statistical measures, viz., number of genotyping patterns, polymorphism information content, resolving power, discrimination power, probability of identity and probability of random identity, identified a set comprising of primers LU7, LU27, LU25, LU20 and LU31 (or LU637) for DNA fingerprinting of linseed germplasm. UPGMA cluster analysis showed that all genotypes could be grouped into four main clusters. Cluster 2 was the largest consisting of mainly landraces, whereas, Cluster 4 was the smallest. Cluster 1 consisted of mainly the released cultivars. Cluster 3 and Cluster 4 were smaller clusters and consisted of exotic genotypes. Principal co-ordinate analysis further substantiated the UPGMA clustering patterns of the observed genetic relationship. To explain 70–80% variability, 17–23 PCOs were needed, whereas 70 components were needed to explain the whole variability in the linseed material under study. Analysis of molecular variance indicated that most of the genetic variation is owing to the individuals within single population, whereas grouping of linseed material into varieties, landraces and exotics accounted for nearly 10% of the total genetic variation. The utility of SSR markers in diversity assessment and cultivar identification is discussed.     

AFLP analysis of genetic relationships between barley (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Hordeum vulgare</Emphasis> L.) landraces from north Shewa in Ethiopia

Local cultivars adapted to specific environmental conditions are the chief source of seed for farmers in Ethiopia and deserve research priority. The aim of this study was, therefore, to determine the genetic relationships between different barley landraces, from north Shewa in Ethiopia so as to differentiate genotypes known by different local names and facilitate their conservation and use in breeding new varieties. Five AFLP primer combinations were analyzed for 19 barley landraces and five malting varieties. The number of scoreable fragments amplified by each AFLP primer combination varied from 49 to 118 with an average of 84.5 and polymorphic fragments for each primer combination varied from 27 to 77 with an average of 58.5. The average percent polymorphism was 69.9% with values ranging from 55.1% to 75.8%. Cluster analysis placed the accessions and malting varieties into one main group while all the farmers’ cultivars, with the exception of two, were in the other main group. It was shown that sampling of germplasm at a given locality might not represent the whole array of genetic variability of locally grown famers’ cultivars. A comprehensive study of all the farmers’ barley cultivars, grown in different parts of Ethiopia, is required to maximize the efforts of germplasm conservation and utilization in national and regional breeding programs.     

Genetic diversity assessment in Somali sorghum (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Sorghum bicolor</Emphasis> (L.) Moench) accessions using microsatellite markers

In the north-western region of Somalia, bordering Ethiopia, sorghum represents an important resources for human and animal nutrition. The critical situation of Somalia is threatening the preservation of this valuable resource and it becomes urgent to develop a strategy of correct evaluation of the sorghum germplasm in order to promote conservation and preservation programs. Microsatellites, also known as Simple Sequence Repeats (SSRs), are reproducible molecular markers useful in assessing the level of genetic diversity of plants. A total of 5 sorghum SSR-specific primer pairs were used to assess the genetic diversity of Somali sorghum landraces. Extensive variation was found at the microsatellite loci analysed, except for a locus that resulted in a monomorphic for some accessions. Considerable differences were found between total and effective number of alleles indicating non uniform allele frequency. Moreover allele frequency at a single locus significantly changed among accessions. Total gene diversity calculated for each locus ranged from 0.44 to 0.79. Most of the genetic diversity occurred within accessions demonstrating that accessions are not under selection processes and/or there is a continuous exchange of genes between sorghum populations. In any case, the patterns of clustering were significantly affected by the presence/absence of some alleles with high discriminant weight. Accessions Carabi, Abaadiro, Masego Cas and Masego Cad represent distinct genotypes confirming finding observed in previous phenotypic studies. The results highlight the central role of local farmers in maintaining and shaping local germplasm.     

Swiss Mattenklee landraces,a distinct and diverse genetic resource of red clover (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Trifolium pratense</Emphasis> L.)

Genetic variability within and among 19 landraces and cultivars of red clover ( Trifolium pratense L.) was investigated by means of amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) analysis in order to assess the potential value of Swiss Mattenklee landraces as genetic resources for plant breeding and the preservation of biodiversity. Populations were classified into three groups according to their origin and agronomic features: Mattenklee landraces (8), Mattenklee cultivars (8) and field clover cultivars (3). Analysis of molecular variance based on 276 polymorphic AFLP markers revealed 80% of total variability to be due to variability within populations while 12% were attributed to variability among groups. Stepwise discriminant analysis identified a subset of 126 AFLP markers which best separated individual plants into the three respective groups. Genetic distances between populations were considerably larger among groups than among populations within the same group, providing further evidence for the genetic distinction between Mattenklee landraces, Mattenklee cultivars and field clover cultivars. AFLP markers identified two landrace clusters, containing three and four populations respectively, which, together with one additional landrace, may sufficiently represent the genetic variability of all eight landraces investigated. The results of this study strongly suggest that Swiss Mattenklee landraces form a genetically distinct group of red clover. The data obtained provide criteria on how to efficiently manage, preserve and exploit Mattenklee germplasm.     

Beans in Europe: origin and structure of the European landraces of Phaseolus vulgaris L.

This study focuses on the expansion of Phaseolus vulgaris in Europe. The pathways of distribution of beans into and across Europe were very complex, with several introductions from the New World that were combined with direct exchanges between European and other Mediterranean countries. We have analyzed here six chloroplast microsatellite (cpSSR) loci and two unlinked nuclear loci (for phaseolin types and Pv-shatterproof1). We have assessed the genetic structure and level of diversity of a large collection of European landraces of P. vulgaris (307) in comparison to 94 genotypes from the Americas that are representative of the Andean and Mesoamerican gene pools. First, we show that most of the European common bean landraces (67%) are of Andean origin, and that there are no strong differences across European regions for the proportions of the Andean and Mesoamerican gene pools. Moreover, cytoplasmic diversity is evenly distributed across European regions. Secondly, the cytoplasmic bottleneck that was due to the introduction of P. vulgaris into the Old World was very weak or nearly absent. This is in contrast to evidence from nuclear analyses that have suggested a bottleneck of greater intensity. Finally, we estimate that a relatively high proportion of the European bean germplasm (about 44%) was derived from hybridization between the Andean and Mesoamerican gene pools. Moreover, although hybrids are present everywhere in Europe, they show an uneven distribution, with high frequencies in central Europe, and low frequencies in Spain and Italy. On the basis of these data, we suggest that the entire European continent and not only some of the countries therein can be regarded as a secondary diversification center for P. vulgaris. Finally, we outline the relevance of these inter-gene pool hybrids for plant breeding.     

Genetic Variability in Pepper (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Capsicum annuum</Emphasis> L.) Estimated by Morphological Data and Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism Markers

Data on genetic similarity among crop cultivars is of vital importance for the plant breeder. The objectives of this study were to group pepper (Capsicum annuum L.) genotypes into clusters according to their distances as estimated by morphological traits and amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) markers and to assess the relationships between the two. Thirty-nine pepper genotypes obtained from different countries were grown in the greenhouse at University of the Free State, South Africa, during 2001 and 2002 in a randomized complete block design with three replications. A total of 20 different morphological traits were measured and six AFLP primer pairs were used to estimate pairwise genetic distances. Both datasets showed high genetic distances among the different genotypes, indicating high genetic diversity among them. The mean genetic distance among Ethiopian pungent elongated-fruit genotypes, was lower than that between them and the introduced ones. Morphological and AFLP distance estimations generally clustered together genotypes with similar fruit sizes. Significant, positive correlation was observed between morphological and AFLP diversity estimations. The narrow genetic basis among the Ethiopian pungent elongated-fruit cultivars suggests that the pepper breeding program of Ethiopia should focus on enriching its germplasm through local collection and introductions from other parts of the world.     

Inheritance of seed condensed tannins and their relationship with seed-coat color and pattern genes in common bean (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Phaseolus vulgaris</Emphasis> L.)

Condensed tannins are major flavonoid end products that affect the nutritional quality of many legume seeds. They chelate minerals and interact with proteins, thus reducing their bioavailability. Tannins also contribute to seed coat color and pigment distribution or intensity. The objective of this study was to analyze the relationship between quantitative trait loci (QTL) for seed tannin concentration in common bean and Mendelian genes for seed coat color and pattern. Three populations of recombinant inbred lines, derived from crosses between the Andean and Mesoamerican genepools were used for QTL identification and for mapping STS markers associated with seed color loci. Seed coat condensed tannins were determined with a butanol–HCl method and a total of 12 QTL were identified on separate linkage groups (LGs) in each of the populations with individual QTL explaining from 10 to 64% of the phenotypic variation for this trait. Loci on linkage groups B3 and B10 were associated with the Mendelian genes Z and Bip for partly colored seed coat pattern, while a QTL on linkage group B7 was associated with the P gene which is the primary locus for the control of color expression in beans. In conclusion, this study found that the inheritance of tannin concentration fits an oligogenic model and identifies novel putative alleles at seed coat color and pattern genes that control tannin accumulation. The results will be important for the genetic improvement of nutritionally enhanced or biofortified beans that have health promoting effects from higher polyphenolics or better iron bioavailability.     

A genetic linkage map of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Phaseolus vulgaris</Emphasis> L. and localization of genes for specific resistance to six races of anthracnose (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Colletotrichum lindemuthianum</Emphasis>)

A genetic map of common bean was constructed using 197 markers including 152 RAPDs, 32 RFLPs, 12 SCARs, and 1 morphological marker. The map was established by using a F₂ population of 85 individuals from the cross between a line derived from the Spanish landrace Andecha (Andean origin) and the Mesoamerican genotype A252. The resulting map covers about 1,401.9 cM, with an average marker distance of 7.1 cM and includes molecular markers linked to disease resistance genes for anthracnose, bean common mosaic virus, bean golden yellow mosaic virus, common bacterial blight, and rust. Resistance to races 6, 31, 38, 39, 65, and 357 of the pathogenic fungus Colletotrichum lindemuthianum (anthracnose) was evaluated in F₃ families derived from the corresponding F₂ individuals. The intermediate resistance to race 65 proceeding from Andecha can be explained by a single dominant gene located on linkage group B1, corresponding to the Co-1 gene. The recombination between the resistance specificities proceeding from A252 agrees with the assumption that total resistance to races 6, 31, 38, 39, 65, and 357, is organized in two clusters. One cluster, located on B4 linkage group, includes individual genes for specific resistance to races 6, 38, 39, and 357. The second cluster is located on linkage group B11 and includes individual genes for specific resistance to races 6, 31, 38, 39, and 65. These two clusters correspond to genes Co-3/Co-9 and Co-2, respectively. It is concluded that most anthracnose resistance Co- genes, previously described as single major genes conferring resistance to several races, could be organized as clusters of different genes conferring race-specific resistance. C. Rodríguez-Suárez and B. Méndez-Vigo equally share for authorship.     

Genome-wide association analysis of nutritional composition-related traits and iron bioavailability in cooked dry beans (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Phaseolus vulgaris</Emphasis> L.)

Seed nutrients in legumes are important for human health, particularly in developing countries with heavy reliance on plant-based diets, and among vegetarians in developed nations. Here, we report on our efforts to uncover the genetic basis underlying the phenotypic variation for protein, zinc, calcium concentrations, and iron bioavailability present in 206 accessions of dry bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) from the Andean Diversity Panel (ADP). We used 8111 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) generated with genotyping-by-sequencing (GBS) to examine the allelic variants’ associations with seed protein, zinc, and calcium concentrations, and iron bioavailability in the 206 ADP accessions grown over 2 years in Michigan. These efforts identified phenotypic variation among the ADP genotypes for each of the traits, with the highest variation (5.4-fold) found for cooked seed iron bioavailability. In addition, significant SNP-trait associations were found and explained from 6.3 to 13.2% of the phenotypic variation. These results expand the current understanding of the genetic architecture underlying these complex nutritional quality traits and iron bioavailability in dry beans. Furthermore, they have utility for future nutritional quality breeding efforts to better biofortify dry bean through genomics-assisted breeding.     

Genetic diversity, inter-gene pool introgression and nutritional quality of common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) from Central Africa

The Great Lakes region of Central Africa is a major producer of common beans in Africa. The region is known for high population density and small average farm size. The common bean represents the most important legume crop of the region, grown on over a third of the cultivated land area, and the per capita consumption is among the highest in the world for the food crop. The objective of this study was to evaluate the genetic diversity in a collection of 365 genotypes from the Great Lakes region of Central Africa, including a large group of landraces from Rwanda as well as varieties from primary centers of diversity and from neighboring countries of Central Africa, such as the Democratic Republic of Congo and Uganda, using 30 fluorescently labeled microsatellite markers and automated allele detection. In addition, the landraces were evaluated for their seed iron and zinc concentration to determine if genetic diversity influenced nutritional quality. Principal coordinate and neighbor-joining analyses allowed the separation of the landraces into 132 Andean and 195 Mesoamerican (or Middle American) genotypes with 32 landraces and 6 varieties intermediate between the gene pools and representing inter-gene pool introgression in terms of seed characteristics and alleles. Genetic diversity and the number of alleles were high for the collection, reflecting the preference for a wide range of seed types in the region and no strong commercial class preference, although red, red mottled and brown seeded beans were common. Observed heterozygosity was also high and may be explained by the common practice of maintaining seed and plant mixtures, a coping strategy practiced by Central African farmers to reduce the effects of abiotic and biotic stresses. Finally, nutritional quality differed between the gene pools with respect to seed iron and zinc concentration, while genotypes from the intermediate group were notably high in both minerals. In conclusion, this study has shown that Central African varieties of common bean are a source of wide genetic diversity with variable nutritional quality that can be used in crop improvement programs for the region.     

Association mapping of days to flowering in common bean (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Phaseolus vulgaris</Emphasis> L.) revealed by DArT markers

In the current study, 173 common bean genotypes from several geographic regions were studied. Days to flowering (DF) was evaluated in two experimental locations in Izmir, Turkey (Bornova and Menemen) in 2 years (2015 and 2016) and was found to range from 30 to 62.7 days with a mean value of 41.5 days. A total of 22,848 SNPs based on diversity array technology were developed, and after filtering, the remaining 20,766 SNP markers were used for calculating linkage disequilibrium. Chromosomes 1–11 contained 1846, 2342, 2184, 1153, 1351, 1520, 1953, 2080, 2065, 1199, and 1511 SNPs, respectively. A total of 1562 SNPs were identified as scaffold markers. The PIC value was 0.25, ranging from 0.005 to 0.500. Common bean accessions were divided into two main subpopulations, namely POP1 (Mesoamerican) and POP2 (Andean). Mixed linear model using the Q + K model showed that three SNPs had a significant association (p?<?0.01) in Bornova in 2015 and seven SNPs had a significant association (p?<?0.01) in the same location in 2016. Five significant associations (p?<?0.01) were identified in 2015 while six (p?<?0.01) were identified in Menemen in 2016. When the data from both locations and both years was combined, six SNPs were significant (p?<?0.01). For DF, 11 putative candidate genes were predicted from the sequences representing homology to linked SNPs. We conclude that the markers, which were significantly associated with the DF of the common bean genotypes in the current study, can be used for marker-assisted selection in plant breeding program of common bean.     

中国普通菜豆形态性状分析及分类

对129份中国普通菜豆地方品种的形态性状进行分析,结果表明,8个性状共检测到35个变异类型,平均变异类型为4.375个,平均多态信息含量为0.5638。中国普通菜豆包括安第斯和中美两个基因库种质,中美洲基因库资源在参试资源中比重较大,但安第斯基因库资源遗传多样性水平高于中美基因库材料。由中美基因库向安第斯基因库渗透的天然杂交种质可为普通菜豆高产、优质、抗逆育种提供有价值的桥梁品种。     

Exploring the quantitative resistance to <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pseudomonas syringae</Emphasis> pv. <Emphasis Type="Italic">phaseolicola</Emphasis> in common bean (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Phaseolus vulgaris</Emphasis> L.)

Pseudomonas syringae pv. phaseolicola is an important disease that causes halo blight in common bean. The genetic mechanisms underlying quantitative halo blight resistance are poorly understood in this species, as most disease studies have focused on qualitative resistance. The present work examines the genetic basis of quantitative resistance to the nine halo blight races in different organs (primary and trifoliate leaf, stem and pod) of an Andean recombinant inbred line (RIL) progeny. Using a multi-environment quantitative trait locus (QTL) mapping approach, 76 and 101 main-effect and epistatic QTLs were identified, respectively. Most of the epistatic interactions detected were due to loci without detectable QTL additive main effects. Main and epistatic QTLs detected were mainly consistent across the environment conditions. The homologous genomic regions corresponding to 26 of the 76 main-effect detected QTLs were positive for the presence of resistance-associated gene cluster encoding nucleotide-binding and leucine-rich repeat (NL) proteins and known defence genes. Main-effect QTLs for resistance to races 3, 4 and 5 in leaf, stem and pod were located on chromosome 2 within a 3.01-Mb region, where a cluster of nine NL genes was detected. The NL gene Phvul.002G323300 is located in this region, which can be considered an important putative candidate gene for the non-organ-specific QTL identified here. The present research provides essential information not only for the better understanding of the plant-pathogen interaction but also for the application of genomic assisted breeding for halo blight resistance in common bean.