Body weight: its relation to tissue composition, segment distribution, and motor function. I. Interspecific comparisons.

The composition of skin, muscle, and bone and their distribution throughout the body are compared for "advanced" or "specialized" species (Alouatta, Macaca, Canis, Felis, Lepus); smaller, more closely related species (Tupaia and the Lorisidae); and several species within the same ecosystem (Barro Colorado Island, Panama). Among the most significant variables, the skin of sloths, howlers and macaques constitutes more than 12% of body weight, whereas greyhound skin is 5% of weight; sloth and howler muscle are 25% of weight, macaque muscle about 40% of weight, greyhound and agouti muscle over 50% of weight. In tree shrews and galagos muscle is heavier (35%) than in pottos and slow lorises (below 28%), but bone and skin are lighter. All species differ in the segmental distribution of weight. Cats have light tails, light feet and heavy thighs, whereas howlers have heavy tails, heavy feet, and light thighs. The galagos have heavy hindlimbs and tails, the pottos and lorises have reduced tails and approximately equal fore- and hindlimbs. Convergences in segment pattern (sloths with pottos and lorises, marmosets with tree shrews, owl monkeys with galagos, cebus with macaques) as well as divergences are documented. All weight-of tissue and weight-of-segment variables are correlated directly with locomotor adaptation.     

Postcranial adaptation and evolution in lorisidae

With the exception of leaping, lorises and galagos move in many similar ways although frequencies and styles differ. This peculiar locomotor distinction in two closely related subfamilies has profoundly altered their respective postcranial anatomies from their common ancestor. A comparison of postcranial adaptation in extant forms shows that lorises and galagos differ somewhat in forelimb mobility, but are more fundamentally disparate in hindlimb adaptation. Inferences concerning locomotor adaptation in the lorisid fossil record indicate a more generalized locomotor pattern which is more like that of extant cheirogaleids than either living galagos or lorises. Thus, vertical clinging and leaping in galagines and the slow-climbing and suspensory movements of lorisines appear to be evolutionarily recent innovations from a more generalized locomotor past.     

Growth and the development of sexual size dimorphism in lorises and galagos

Three fundamental ontogenetic pathways lead to the development of size differences between males and females. Males and females may grow at the same rate for different durations (bimaturism), grow for the same duration at different rates, or grow at a mix of rate and duration differences. While patterns of growth and the development of adult body size are well established for many haplorhines, the extent to which rate and duration differences affect strepsirrhine growth trajectories remains unclear. Here, we present iterative piecewise regression models that describe the ontogeny of adult body mass for males and females of five lorisoid species (i.e., lorises and galagos) from the Duke Lemur Center. We test the hypotheses that, like most haplorhines, sexual size dimorphism (SSD) is a result of bimaturism, and males and females of monomorphic species grow at the same rate for a similar duration. We confirm that the galagos in this sample (Galago moholi and Otolemur garnettii) show significant SSD that is achieved through bimaturism. Unlike monomorphic lemurids, the lorises in this sample show a diversity of ontogenetic patterns. Loris tardigradus does follow a lemur-like trajectory to monomorphism but Nycticebuscoucang and Nycticebus pygmaeus achieve larger adult female body sizes through a mixture of rate and duration differences. We show that contrary to previous assumptions, there are patterns of both similarity and difference in growth trajectories of comparably sized lorises and galagos. Furthermore, when ontogenetic profiles of lorisoid and lemurid growth are compared, it is evident that lorisoids grow faster for a shorter period of time.     

Effects of animate vs. inanimate stimuli on curiosity behavior in greater galago and slow loris

Captive prosimians housed in a semi-natural laboratory environment were exposed to novel stimuli, both animate (cat, snake) and inanimate (empty box). Observations were made by means of closed circuit TV. Animate stimuli elicited considerably more interest (about 42% of a test session) than the inanimate stimulus (about 12% of the test session). The more vulnerable species, the slow loris, displayed as much curiosity as the less vulnerable species, the greater galago; but, in the presence of live stimuli, lorises were more cautious. They moved slowly and silently, employed contact as a mode of investigation significantly less often than galagos, spent significantly less time than galagos investigating from within 3 ft, took significantly longer than galagos to make their first approaches to within the 3 ft zone, and, once there, stayed for significantly shorter visits than galagos. The data demonstrate: (1) that prosimians are highly responsive to novelty if the stimuli are appropriate; and (2) that it is important to take into account not just whether animals investigate but also how they investigate.     

Anthropoid versus strepsirhine status of the African Eocene primates Algeripithecus and Azibius: craniodental evidence

Recent fossil discoveries have demonstrated that Africa and Asia were epicentres for the origin and/or early diversification of the major living primate lineages, including both anthropoids (monkeys, apes and humans) and crown strepsirhine primates (lemurs, lorises and galagos). Competing hypotheses favouring either an African or Asian origin for anthropoids rank among the most hotly contested issues in paleoprimatology. The Afrocentric model for anthropoid origins rests heavily on the >45 Myr old fossil Algeripithecus minutus from Algeria, which is widely acknowledged to be one of the oldest known anthropoids. However, the phylogenetic position of Algeripithecus with respect to other primates has been tenuous because of the highly fragmentary fossils that have documented this primate until now. Recently recovered and more nearly complete fossils of Algeripithecus and contemporaneous relatives reveal that they are not anthropoids. New data support the idea that Algeripithecus and its sister genus Azibius are the earliest offshoots of an Afro–Arabian strepsirhine clade that embraces extant toothcombed primates and their fossil relatives. Azibius exhibits anatomical evidence for nocturnality. Algeripithecus has a long, thin and forwardly inclined lower canine alveolus, a feature that is entirely compatible with the long and procumbent lower canine included in the toothcomb of crown strepsirhines. These results strengthen an ancient African origin for crown strepsirhines and, in turn, strongly challenge the role of Africa as the ancestral homeland for anthropoids.     

An ethmoid exposure (os planum) in the orbit of Indri indri (Primates, Lemuriformes).

In 6 of 17 skulls of Indri indri retaining distinct sutures in the medial orbital wall, a small separate bony element intervenes between the frontal and the maxillolacrimal suture. This element is demonstrably continuous with the ethmoid on one such skull. The occurrence of an ethmoid exposure in the orbit of Indri suggests that this trait is not a simple function of orbital size and convergence. Since such an exposure is found in non-cheirogaleine lemuriforms, its distribution provides no support for the hyothesis that lorises and galagos are derived from cheirogaleines.     

Evolution and biogeography of primates: a new model based on molecular phylogenetics,vicariance and plate tectonics

Heads, M. Evolution and biogeography of primates: a new model based on molecular phylogenetics, vicariance and plate tectonics. —Zoologica Scripta, 39, 107–127. The ages of the oldest fossils suggest an origin for primates in the Paleocene (～56 Ma). Fossil‐calibrated molecular clock dates give Cretaceous dates (～80–116 Ma). Both these estimates are minimum dates although they are often ‘transmogrified’ and treated as maximum or absolute dates. Oldest fossils can underestimate ages by tens of millions of years and instead of calibrating the time‐course of evolution with a scanty fossil record, the geographical boundaries of the main molecular clades of primates are calibrated here with radiometrically dated tectonic events. This indicates that primates originated when a globally widespread ancestor (early Archonta) differentiated into a northern group (Plesiadapiformes, extinct), a southern group (Primates), and two south‐east Asian groups (Dermoptera and Scandentia). The division occurred with the breakup of Pangea in the Early Jurassic and the opening of the central Atlantic (～185 Ma). Within primates, the strepsirrhines and haplorhines diverged with volcanism and buckling on the Lebombo Monocline, a volcanic rifted margin in south‐east Africa (Early Jurassic, ～180 Ma). Within strepsirrhines, lorises and galagos (Africa and Asia) and lemurs (Madagascar) diverged with the formation of the Mozambique Channel (Middle Jurassic, ～160 Ma). Within haplorhines, Old World monkeys and New World monkeys diverged with the opening of the Atlantic (Early Cretaceous, ～130 Ma). The main aspects of primate distribution are interpreted as the result of plate tectonics, phylogeny and vicariance, with some subsequent range expansion leading to secondary overlap. Long‐distance, trans‐oceanic dispersal events are not necessary. The primate ancestral complex was already widespread globally when sea‐floor spreading, strike‐slip rifting and orogeny fractured and deformed distributions through the Jurassic and Cretaceous, leading to the origin of the modern clades. The model suggests that the topology of the phylogenetic tree reflects a sequence of differentiation in a widespread ancestor rather than a series of dispersal events.     

Checkerboard Patterns,Interspecific Competition,and Extinction: Lessons from Distribution Patterns of Tarsiers (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Tarsius</Emphasis>) and Slow Lorises (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Nycticebus</Emphasis>) in Insular Southeast Asia

Tarsiers (Tarsius) and slow lorises (Nycticebus) are the only extant nocturnal primates occurring in Southeast Asia. Harcourt (1999) hypothesized that in insular Southeast Asia, slow lorises and tarsiers showed a checkerboard distribution on 12 small (<12,000 km²) islands, i.e., only one or the other occurs, and attributed this to extreme levels of competition between these 2 largely faunivorous primates. Further, he predicted slow lorises were able to persist on smaller islands than tarsiers. We re-evaluated these findings using an expanded dataset including 49 islands where tarsiers or slow lorises occur. Tarsiers and slow lorises live on islands of similar size (median size of ca. 300–900 km²), and both taxa inhabit an equal proportion of small, medium, and large islands. On small islands within their area of sympatry tarsiers occur on 1 island, slow lorises on 8, both genera on 3, and we can assume they have become extinct from 11 small islands since the Last Glacial Maximum. Sizes of islands where tarsiers or slow lorises have become extinct do not differ from islands where they are still extant. We show that slow lorises occur on more islands in insular Southeast Asia than perhaps previously assumed, but these islands are not smaller on average than islands where tarsiers occur. A checkerboard distribution between these taxa is not evident. More studies are needed at the macroecological level to assess the importance of biogeographic history in explaining their present-day distribution patterns.     

Foraging behaviour of the slender loris (Loris lydekkerianus lydekkerianus): implications for theories of primate origins

Members of the Order Primates are characterised by a wide overlap of visual fields or optic convergence. It has been proposed that exploitation of either insects or angiosperm products in the terminal branches of trees, and the corresponding complex, three-dimensional environment associated with these foraging strategies, account for visual convergence. Although slender lorises (Loris sp.) are the most visually convergent of all the primates, very little is known about their feeding ecology. This study, carried out over 10 (1/2) months in South India, examines the feeding behaviour of L. lydekkerianus lydekkerianus in relation to hypotheses regarding visual predation of insects. Of 1238 feeding observations, 96% were of animal prey. Lorises showed an equal and overwhelming preference for terminal and middle branch feeding, using the undergrowth and trunk rarely. The type of prey caught on terminal branches (Lepidoptera, Odonata, Homoptera) differed significantly from those caught on middle branches (Hymenoptera, Coleoptera). A two-handed catch accompanied by bipedal postures was used almost exclusively on terminal branches where mobile prey was caught, whereas the more common capture technique of one-handed grab was used more often on sturdy middle branches to obtain slow moving prey. Although prey was detected with senses other than vision, vision was the key sense used upon the final strike. This study strongly supports the notion that hunting for animal prey was a key ecological determinant in selecting for visual convergence early on in primate evolution. The extreme specialisations of slender lorises, however, suggest that early primates were not dedicated faunivores and lend further support to the emerging view that both insects and fruits were probably important components of the diet of basal primates, and that exploitation of fruits may account for other key primate traits.     

Tropical heterothermy is “cool”: The expression of daily torpor and hibernation in primates

Living nonhuman primates generally inhabit tropical forests, and torpor is regarded as a strategy employed by cold‐adapted organisms. Yet, some primates employ daily torpor or hibernation (heterothermy) under obligatory, temporary, or emergency circumstances. Though heterothermy is present in most mammalian lineages, there are only three extant heterothermic primate lineages: bushbabies from Africa, lorises from Asia, and dwarf and mouse lemurs from Madagascar. Here, we analyze their phenotypes in the general context of tropical mammalian heterothermy. We focus on Malagasy lemurs as they have been the most intensively studied and also show an unmatched range of flexibility in their heterothermic responses. We discuss the evidence for whether heterothermy should be considered an ancestral or derived condition in primates. This consideration is particularly intriguing given that an understanding of the underlying mechanisms for hibernation in lemurs opens the possibility for insight into genotype‐phenotype interactions, including those with biomedical relevance for humans.     

The relationship between geographic variation in clutch size and migration pattern in the Yellow Wagtail

Clutch size in the Yellow Wagtail increases by about one egg per 19° of latitude throughout Europe, but at a given latitude larger clutches are laid in western than in eastern Europe. In eastern Asia there is evidence of a reverse latitudinal cline, in which clutch size is smaller at higher latitudes, and considerably smaller than in Europe at equivalent latitudes. These trends suggest that smaller clutches are laid by populations with access to extensive wintering areas in east Africa and south-east Asia, whereas larger clutches are laid by populations with more restricted wintering areas in west Africa and India. Higher winter mortality in the latter populations may reduce breeding density, leading to less competition for resources and allowing larger clutches to be produced.     

棕榈科植物的地理分布

棕榈科是一个泛热带分布的科,共有１９８属,约２６７０种,下分６亚科,１４族。贝叶棕族是最原始的族,低地榈族则最进化。本科植物在世界上的分布可划分为１３个区,其中以印度－马来西区和新热带区的属、种最多。中国只有１６属和８５种,没有特有属。这些种大部分属热带亚洲分布,与热带亚洲植物区系关系非常密切。关于棕榈科起源地问题,有西冈瓦纳起源和劳亚起源之说。根据化石记录和形态特征的分析,棕榈科很可能于早白垩纪     

Chromosome painting between human and lorisiform prosimians: evidence for the HSA 7/16 synteny in the primate ancestral karyotype

Multidirectional chromosome painting with probes derived from flow-sorted chromosomes of humans (Homo sapiens, HSA, 2n = 46) and galagos (Galago moholi, GMO, 2n = 38) allowed us to map evolutionarily conserved chromosomal segments among humans, galagos, and slow lorises (Nycticebus coucang, NCO, 2n = 50). In total, the 22 human autosomal painting probes detected 40 homologous chromosomal segments in the slow loris genome. The genome of the slow loris contains 16 sytenic associations of human homologues. The ancient syntenic associations of human chromosomes such as HSA 3/21, 7/16, 12/22 (twice), and 14/15, reported in most mammalian species, were also present in the slow loris genome. Six associations (HSA 1a/19a, 2a/12a, 6a/14b, 7a/12c, 9/15b, and 10a/19b) were shared by the slow loris and galago. Five associations (HSA 1b/6b, 4a/5a, 11b/15a, 12b/19b, and 15b/16b) were unique to the slow loris. In contrast, 30 homologous chromosome segments were identified in the slow loris genome when using galago chromosome painting probes. The data showed that the karyotypic differences between these two species were mainly due to Robertsonian translocations. Reverse painting, using galago painting probes onto human chromosomes, confirmed most of the chromosome homologies between humans and galagos established previously, and documented the HSA 7/16 association in galagos, which was not reported previously. The presence of the HSA 7/16 association in the slow loris and galago suggests that the 7/16 association is an ancestral synteny for primates. Based on our results and the published homology maps between humans and other primate species, we propose an ancestral karyotype (2n = 60) for lorisiform primates.     

叶蜂总科昆虫生物地理研究II叶蜂总科广布属的地理分布特性(膜翅目)

本文系统分析了叶蜂总科广布属的地理分布特性。叶蜂总科广布属被分为１２个主要的分布类型,其中全北界分布型６９属,可再分为６种次类型。在各分布型下列举了全部具有该类分布特征的叶蜂总科属名,并提出了一些有关起源与扩散的设想和推论。在广布型属的地理分布研究基础上,对各大生物地理界之间的关系也提出了一些看法。     

BIOGEOGRAPHICAL AND TOPOGRAPHICAL VARIATION IN THE PREY OF THE BLACK EAGLE IN THE CAPE PROVINCE,SOUTH AFRICA

Boshoff, A.F., Palmer, N.G., Avery, G., Davies, R.A.G. & Jarvis, M.J.F. 1991. Biogeoraphical and toporaphical variation in the prey of the Black Eagle in the Cape Province, South Africa. Ostrich 62: 58–72.

Prey remains collected at or near Black Eagle Aquilu verreauxii nest sites in the Cape Province, South Africa, were analysed according to frequency of occurrence of prey scies in the samples. A total of 5748 prey individuals, collected from 73 sites, was analysed according to tree biome groups and four nest site types. The Rock Hyrax Procuvia capensis is the dominant prey species, but the eagles' diet sctrum vanestypes. The according to its availability. Indices of species richness and diversity of the prey are inverser correlated with the proportion of the prey contributed by P. capenis, which in turn is determined by topography and vegetation. Biome has a greater influence on the indices than has nest site type. The age structure of the P. capensis prey remains closely reflects the juvenile: sub- adult: adult ratios in the biomes and at the nest site tpes. hfedium-sized (aprox. 1–4,5 kg) pre is usually taken. Juvenile domestic small-stock (lambs ani goat kids) comprised onb 3,4% of the over, total.     

Symphyseal fusion and jaw-adductor muscle force: an EMG study

The purpose of this study is to test various hypotheses about balancing-side jaw muscle recruitment patterns during mastication, with a major focus on testing the hypothesis that symphyseal fusion in anthropoids is due mainly to vertically- and/or transversely-directed jaw muscle forces. Furthermore, as the balancing-side deep masseter has been shown to play an important role in wishboning of the macaque mandibular symphysis, we test the hypothesis that primates possessing a highly mobile mandibular symphysis do not exhibit the balancing-side deep masseter firing pattern that causes wishboning of the anthropoid mandible. Finally, we also test the hypothesis that balancing-side muscle recruitment patterns are importantly related to allometric constraints associated with the evolution of increasing body size. Electromyographic (EMG) activity of the left and right superficial and deep masseters were recorded and analyzed in baboons, macaques, owl monkeys, and thick-tailed galagos. The masseter was chosen for analysis because in the frontal projection its superficial portion exerts force primarily in the vertical (dorsoventral) direction, whereas its deep portion has a relatively larger component of force in the transverse direction. The symphyseal fusion-muscle recruitment hypothesis predicts that unlike anthropoids, galagos develop bite force with relatively little contribution from their balancing-side jaw muscles. Thus, compared to galagos, anthropoids recruit a larger percentage of force from their balancing-side muscles. If true, this means that during forceful mastication, galagos should have working-side/balancing-side (W/B) EMG ratios that are relatively large, whereas anthropoids should have W/B ratios that are relatively small. The EMG data indicate that galagos do indeed have the largest average W/B ratios for both the superficial and deep masseters (2.2 and 4.4, respectively). Among the anthropoids, the average W/B ratios for the superficial and deep masseters are 1.9 and 1.0 for baboons, 1.4 and 1.0 for macaques, and both values are 1.4 for owl monkeys. Of these ratios, however, the only significant difference between thick-tailed galagos and anthropoids are those associated with the deep masseter. Furthermore, the analysis of masseter firing patterns indicates that whereas baboons, macaques and owl monkeys exhibit the deep masseter firing pattern associated with wishboning of the macaque mandibular symphysis, galagos do not exhibit this firing pattern. The allometric constraint-muscle recruitment hypothesis predicts that larger primates must recruit relatively larger amounts of balancing-side muscle force so as to develop equivalent amounts of bite force. Operationally this means that during forceful mastication, the W/B EMG ratios for the superficial and deep masseters should be negatively correlated with body size. Our analysis clearly refutes this hypothesis. As already noted, the average W/B ratios for both the superficial and deep masseter are largest in thick-tailed galagos, and not, as predicted by the allometric constraint hypothesis, in owl monkeys, an anthropoid whose body size is smaller than that of thick-tailed galagos. Our analysis also indicates that owl monkeys have W/B ratios that are small and more similar to those of the much larger-sized baboons and macaques. Thus, both the analysis of the W/B EMG ratios and the muscle firing pattern data support the hypothesis that symphyseal fusion and transversely-directed muscle force in anthropoids are functionally linked. This in turn supports the hypothesis that the evolution of symphyseal fusion in anthropoids is an adaptation to strengthen the symphysis so as to counter increased wishboning stress during forceful unilateral mastication. (ABSTRACT TRUNCATED)     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Spizaetus</Emphasis> hawk-eagles as predators of arboreal colobines

The predation pressure put on primates by diurnal birds of prey differs greatly between continents. Africa and South America have specialist raptors (e.g. crowned hawk-eagle Stephanoaetus coronatus and harpy eagle Harpia harpyja) whereas in Asia the only such specialist’s (Philippine eagle Pithecophaga jefferyi) distribution is largely allopatric with primates. The almost universal absence of polyspecific groups in Asia (common in Africa and South America) may indicate reduced predation pressure. As such there is almost no information on predation pressures on primates in Asia by raptors. Here we report successful predation of a juvenile banded langur Presbytis femoralis (~2 kg) by a changeable hawk-eagle Spizaetus cirrhatus. The troop that was attacked displayed no signs of being alarmed, and no calls were made before the event. We argue that in insular Southeast Asia, especially, large Spizaetus hawk-eagles (~2 kg) are significant predators of arboreal colobines. Using data on the relative size of sympatric Spizaetus hawk-eagles and colobines we make predictions on where geographically we can expect the highest predation pressure (Thai–Malay Peninsula) and which colobines are least (Nasalis larvatus, Trachypithecus auratus, P. thomasi) and most (P. femoralis, T. cristatus) affected.     

Diet and Feeding Behavior of Mysore Slender Lorises

We studied the feeding ecology of the Mysore slender loris (Loris lydekkerianus lydekkerianus) for 10.5 mo in a dry scrub forest at Ayyalur Interface Forestry Division, Tamil Nadu, South India. We recorded and analyzed 1240 feeding incidents, which indicate that the lorises were almost exclusively faunivorous, with 96% of all feeding events representing animal prey. Of prey items that could be identified (n = 605), 62.9% were ants and termites. Lorises fed on 9 orders and 17 families of insects, plus spiders, molluscs, and small vertebrates. Lorises infrequently fed on gums and a legume pod. They usually grabbed prey with one hand, while other appendages firmly held the substrate. Many of the identifiable prey items belong to insect taxa likely to contain toxic chemicals. Consumption of insects inferred to be toxic was accompanied by an elaborate behavioral repertoire of sneezing, slobbering and urine-washing. A high proportion of insects eaten by slender lorises (71%) occurred in patches or aggregations. The utilization of aggregated social insects may have implications for understanding the unusually high degree of gregarious behavior exhibited by the lorises.     

试论长臂猿的中国起源

本文通过中国长臂猿的地理地史分布, 尤其是亚洲新第三纪(Neogene Period) 中新世(Miocene) 的上猿(Pliop ithecus)、醉猿(Diony sopithecus shuang ouensis)、池猿(L accop ithecusrobustus)、滇猿(Dianopithecus progressus) 及第四纪(Quaternary Period) 更新世(Pleistocene Epoch) 丰富的黑长臂猿(Hylobates concolor) 等化石的发现, 结合现生类群的分布和黑长臂猿的行为生态研究结果等有关资料综合论述了现生长臂猿的亚洲中国起源; 黑长臂猿则是解决这一问题的关键物种。