Kaempferitrin inhibits GLUT4 translocation and glucose uptake in 3T3-L1 adipocytes

Insulin stimulated GLUT4 (glucose transporter 4) translocation and glucose uptake in muscles and adipocytes is important for the maintenance of blood glucose homeostasis in our body. In this paper, we report the identification of kaempferitrin (kaempferol 3,7-dirhamnoside), a glycosylated flavonoid, as a compound that inhibits insulin stimulated GLUT4 translocation and glucose uptake in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. In the absence of insulin, we observed that addition of kaempferitrin did not affect GLUT4 translocation or glucose uptake. On the other hand, kaempferitrin acted as an inhibitor of insulin-stimulated GLUT4 translocation and glucose uptake in 3T3-L1 adipocytes by inhibiting Akt activation. Molecular docking studies using a homology model of GLUT4 showed that kaempferitrin binds directly to GLUT4 at the glucose transportation channel, suggesting the possibility of a competition between kaempferitrin and glucose during the transport. Taken together, our data demonstrates that kaempferitrin inhibits GLUT4 mediated glucose uptake at least by two different mechanisms, one by interfering with the insulin signaling pathway and the other by a possible competition with glucose during the transport.     

The glucose transporter 4-regulating protein TUG is essential for highly insulin-responsive glucose uptake in 3T3-L1 adipocytes

Insulin stimulates glucose uptake in fat and muscle by redistributing GLUT4 glucose transporters from intracellular membranes to the cell surface. We previously proposed that, in 3T3-L1 adipocytes, TUG retains GLUT4 within unstimulated cells and insulin mobilizes this retained GLUT4 by stimulating its dissociation from TUG. Yet the relative importance of this action in the overall control of glucose uptake remains uncertain. Here we report that transient, small interfering RNA-mediated depletion of TUG causes GLUT4 translocation and enhances glucose uptake in unstimulated 3T3-L1 adipocytes, similar to insulin. Stable TUG depletion or expression of a dominant negative fragment likewise stimulates GLUT4 redistribution and glucose uptake, and insulin causes a 2-fold further increase. Microscopy shows that TUG governs the accumulation of GLUT4 in perinuclear membranes distinct from endosomes and indicates that it is this pool of GLUT4 that is mobilized by TUG disruption. Interestingly, in addition to translocating GLUT4 and enhancing glucose uptake, TUG disruption appears to accelerate the degradation of GLUT4 in lysosomes. Finally, we find that TUG binds directly and specifically to a large intracellular loop in GLUT4. Together, these findings demonstrate that TUG is required to retain GLUT4 intracellularly in 3T3-L1 adipocytes in the absence of insulin and further implicate the insulin-stimulated dissociation of TUG and GLUT4 as an important action by which insulin stimulates glucose uptake.     

Petalonia improves glucose homeostasis in streptozotocin-induced diabetic mice

The anti-diabetic potential of Petalonia binghamiae extract (PBE) was evaluated in vivo. Dietary administration of PBE to streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic mice significantly lowered blood glucose levels and improved glucose tolerance. The mode of action by which PBE attenuated diabetes was investigated in vitro using 3T3-L1 cells. PBE treatment stimulated 3T3-L1 adipocyte differentiation as evidenced by increased triglyceride accumulation. At the molecular level, peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ) and terminal marker protein aP2, as well as the mRNA of GLUT4 were up-regulated by PBE. In mature adipocytes, PBE significantly stimulated the uptake of glucose and the expression of insulin receptor substrate-1 (IRS-1). Furthermore, PBE increased PPARγ luciferase reporter gene activity in COS-1 cells. Taken together, these results suggest that the in vivo anti-diabetic effect of PBE is mediated by both insulin-like and insulin-sensitizing actions in adipocytes.     

Transient effect of platelet-derived growth factor on GLUT4 translocation in 3T3-L1 adipocytes.

We earlier developed a novel method to detect translocation of the glucose transporter (GLUT) directly and simply using c-MYC epitope-tagged GLUT (GLUTMYC). To define the effect of platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF) on glucose transport in 3T3-L1 adipocytes, we investigated the PDGF- and insulin-induced glucose uptake, translocation of glucose transporters, and phosphatidylinositol (PI) 3-kinase activity in 3T3-L1, 3T3-L1GLUT4MYC, and 3T3-L1GLUT1MYC adipocytes. Insulin and PDGF stimulated glucose uptake by 9-10- and 5.5-6.5-fold, respectively, in both 3T3-L1 and 3T3-L1GLUT4MYC adipocytes. Exogenous GLUT4MYC expression led to enhanced PDGF-induced glucose transport. In 3T3-L1GLUT4MYC adipocytes, insulin and PDGF induced an 8- and 5-fold increase in GLUT4MYC translocation, respectively, determined in a cell-surface anti-c-MYC antibody binding assay. This PDGF-induced GLUT4MYC translocation was further demonstrated with fluorescent detection. In contrast, PDGF stimulated a 2-fold increase of GLUT1MYC translocation and 2.5-fold increase of glucose uptake in 3T3-L1GLUT1MYC adipocytes. The PDGF-induced GLUT4MYC translocation, glucose uptake, and PI 3-kinase activity were maximal (100%) at 5-10 min and thereafter rapidly declined to 40, 30, and 12%, respectively, within 60 min, a time when effects of insulin were maximal. Wortmannin (0.1 microM) abolished PDGF-induced GLUT4MYC translocation and glucose uptake in 3T3-L1GLUT4MYC adipocytes. These results suggest that PDGF can transiently trigger the translocation of GLUT4 and stimulate glucose uptake by translocation of both GLUT4 and GLUT1 in a PI 3-kinase-dependent signaling pathway in 3T3-L1 adipocytes.     

Identification of P-Rex1 as a novel Rac1-guanine nucleotide exchange factor (GEF) that promotes actin remodeling and GLUT4 protein trafficking in adipocytes

Phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) signaling promotes the translocation of the glucose transporter, GLUT4, to the plasma membrane in insulin-sensitive tissues to facilitate glucose uptake. In adipocytes, insulin-stimulated reorganization of the actin cytoskeleton has been proposed to play a role in promoting GLUT4 translocation and glucose uptake, in a PI3K-dependent manner. However, the PI3K effectors that promote GLUT4 translocation via regulation of the actin cytoskeleton in adipocytes remain to be fully elucidated. Here we demonstrate that the PI3K-dependent Rac exchange factor, P-Rex1, enhances membrane ruffling in 3T3-L1 adipocytes and promotes GLUT4 trafficking to the plasma membrane at submaximal insulin concentrations. P-Rex1-facilitated GLUT4 trafficking requires a functional actin network and membrane ruffle formation and occurs in a PI3K- and Rac1-dependent manner. In contrast, expression of other Rho GTPases, such as Cdc42 or Rho, did not affect insulin-stimulated P-Rex1-mediated GLUT4 trafficking. P-Rex1 siRNA knockdown or expression of a P-Rex1 dominant negative mutant reduced but did not completely inhibit glucose uptake in response to insulin. Collectively, these studies identify a novel RacGEF in adipocytes as P-Rex1 that, at physiological insulin concentrations, functions as an insulin-dependent regulator of the actin cytoskeleton that contributes to GLUT4 trafficking to the plasma membrane.     

PACSIN3 overexpression increases adipocyte glucose transport through GLUT1

PACSIN family members regulate intracellular vesicle trafficking via their ability to regulate cytoskeletal rearrangement. These processes are known to be involved in trafficking of GLUT1 and GLUT4 in adipocytes. In this study, PACSIN3 was observed to be the only PACSIN isoform that increases in expression during 3T3-L1 adipocyte differentiation. Overexpression of PACSIN3 in 3T3-L1 adipocytes caused an elevation of glucose uptake. Subcellular fractionation revealed that PACSIN3 overexpression elevated GLUT1 plasma membrane localization without effecting GLUT4 distribution. In agreement with this result, examination of GLUT exofacial presentation at the cell surface by photoaffinity labeling revealed significantly increased GLUT1, but not GLUT4, after overexpression of PACSIN3. These results establish a role for PACSIN3 in regulating glucose uptake in adipocytes via its preferential participation in GLUT1 trafficking. They are consistent with the proposal, which is supported by a recent study, that GLUT1, but not GLUT4, is predominantly endocytosed via the coated pit pathway in unstimulated 3T3-L1 adipocytes.     

Insulin and Chromium Picolinate Induce Translocation of CD36 to the Plasma Membrane Through Different Signaling Pathways in 3T3-L1 Adipocytes,and with a Differential Functionality of the CD36

Chromium picolinate (CrPic) has been indicated to activate glucose transporter 4 (GLUT4) trafficking to the plasma membrane (PM) to enhance glucose uptake in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. In skeletal and heart muscle cells, insulin directs the intracellular trafficking of the fatty acid translocase/CD36 to induce the uptake of cellular long-chain fatty acid (LCFA). The current study describes the effects of CrPic and insulin on the translocation of CD36 from intracellular storage pools to the PM in 3T3-L1 adipocytes in comparison with that of GLUT4. Immunofluorescence microscopy and immunoblotting revealed that both CD36 and GLUT4 were expressed and primarily located intracellularly in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Upon insulin or CrPic stimulation, PM expression of CD36 increased in a similar manner as that for GLUT4; the CrPic-stimulated PM expression was less strong than that of insulin. The increase in PM localization for these two proteins by insulin paralleled LCFA ([1-¹⁴C]palmitate) or [³H]deoxyglucose uptake in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. The induction of the PM expression of GLUT4, but not CD36, or substrate uptake by insulin and CrPic appears to be additive in adipocytes. Furthermore, wortmannin completely inhibited the insulin-stimulated translocation of GLUT4 or CD36 and prevented the increased uptake of glucose or LCFA in these cells. Taken together, for the first time, these findings suggest that both insulin and CrPic induce CD36 translocation to the PM in 3T3-L1 adipocytes and that their translocation-inducing effects are not additive. The signaling pathway inducing the translocations is different, apparently resulting in a differential activity of CD36.     

Apelin stimulates glucose uptake through the PI3K/Akt pathway and improves insulin resistance in 3T3-L1 adipocytes

Apelin, a cytokine mainly secreted by adipocytes, is closely related with insulin resistance. The underlying molecular mechanisms of how apelin affects insulin resistance, however, are poorly understood. This study aimed to investigate the effect of apelin on glucose metabolism and insulin resistance in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. After 10 ng/ml TNF-α treatment for 24 h, insulin-stimulated glucose uptake was reduced by 47% in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Apelin treatment improved glucose uptake in a time- and dose-dependent manner. Treatment of 1,000 nM apelin for 60 min maximally augmented glucose uptake in insulin-resistant 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Furthermore, apelin pre-incubation also increased adipocytes' insulin-stimulated glucose uptake, and PI3K/Akt pathway were involved in these effects. In addition, immunocytochemistry staining and western blotting analysis indicated that apelin could increase glucose transporter 4 translocation from the cytoplasm to the plasma membrane. Apelin also increased the anti-inflammatory adipokine adiponectin mRNA expression while reducing that of pro-inflammatory adipokine interleukin-6 in insulin-resistant 3T3-L1 adipocytes. These results suggest that apelin stimulates glucose uptake through the PI3K/Akt pathway, promotes GLUT4 translocation from the cytoplasm to the plasma membrane, and modulates inflammatory responses in insulin-resistant 3T3-L1 adipocytes.     

Genistein directly inhibits GLUT4-mediated glucose uptake in 3T3-L1 adipocytes

The isoflavone-derivative genistein is commonly applied as an inhibitor of tyrosine kinases. In this report we analyze the effect of genistein on insulin-stimulated glucose uptake in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. In these cells insulin-induced glucose uptake is primarily mediated by the GLUT4 glucose transporter. We observed that pre-treatment with genistein did not affect insulin-induced tyrosine kinase activity of the insulin receptor or activation of protein kinase B. On the other hand, genistein acted as a direct inhibitor of insulin-induced glucose uptake in 3T3-L1 adipocytes with an IC(50) of 20 microM. We conclude that apart from acting as a general tyrosine kinase inhibitor, genistein also affects the function of other proteins such as the GLUT4 transporter. These data suggest that caution must be applied when interpreting data on the involvement of tyrosine kinase activity in glucose uptake in 3T3-L1 adipocytes.     

Evidence that erythroid-type glucose transporter intrinsic activity is modulated by cadmium treatment of mouse 3T3-L1 cells

Previous studies suggest that regulation of hexose uptake in Chinese hamster ovary fibroblasts can occur by alterations in glucose transporter intrinsic activity without changes in cell surface transporter number (Harrison, S. A., Buxton, J. M., Helgerson, A. L., MacDonald, R. G., Chlapowski, F. J., Carruthers, A., and Czech, M. P. (1990) J. Biol. Chem. 265, 5793-5801). We tested this hypothesis using 3T3-L1 fibroblasts and adipocytes which exhibit 5-6-fold increases in 2-deoxyglucose or 3-O-methylglucose uptake when exposed to low micromolar concentrations of cadmium for 18 h. Cadmium treatment decreased the apparent Km of 3T3-L1 fibroblasts for 3-O-methylglucose influx from approximately 28 to 9 mM and increased the apparent Vmax by 2-3-fold. These fibroblasts lack the skeletal muscle/adipocyte-type (GLUT4) transporter and showed only a small increase in total cellular immunoreactive HepG2 type (GLUT1) transporter in response to cadmium. Furthermore, cell surface GLUT1 levels did not change in 3T3-L1 fibroblasts exposed to cadmium, as assessed by the binding to intact cells of an antibody which recognizes an extracellular GLUT1 epitope. Insulin enhanced 2-deoxyglucose uptake 2-fold in 3T3-L1 fibroblasts, but did not further stimulate cadmium-activated transport rates. In contrast, insulin stimulated hexose transport 15-fold in 3T3-L1 adipocytes, which express both GLUT1 and GLUT4 proteins, and this effect was fully additive with the 5-fold effect of cadmium. Cadmium had little or no effect on immunoreactive GLUT1 or GLUT4 in isolated 3T3-L1 adipocyte plasma membranes. In contrast, insulin action led to marked recruitment (3-fold) of GLUT4 to the plasma membrane fraction in adipocytes treated with or without cadmium. Taken together, these data are consistent with the hypothesis that cadmium-activated sugar uptake is catalyzed by GLUT1, whereas insulin-stimulated sugar uptake is catalyzed predominantly by GLUT4 in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Furthermore, the data suggest that the GLUT1 transporter can undergo significant increases in intrinsic catalytic activity in response to cadmium treatment of 3T3-L1 fibroblasts and adipocytes.     

Hexose transport stimulation and membrane redistribution of glucose transporter isoforms in response to cholera toxin, dibutyryl cyclic AMP, and insulin in 3T3-L1 adipocytes

Exposure of 3T3-L1 adipocytes to 100 ng/ml of cholera toxin or 1 mM dibutyryl cyclic AMP caused a marked stimulation of deoxyglucose transport. A maximal increase of 10- to 15-fold was observed after 12-24 h of exposure, while 100 nM insulin elicited an increase of similar magnitude within 30 min. A short term exposure (4 h) of cells to cholera toxin or dibutyryl cyclic AMP resulted in a 3- to 4-fold increase in deoxyglucose transport which was associated with significant redistribution of both the HepG2/erythrocyte (GLUT1) and muscle/adipocyte (GLUT4) glucose transporters from low density microsomes to the plasma membrane fraction. Total cellular amounts of both transporter proteins remained constant. In contrast, cells exposed to cholera toxin or dibutyryl cyclic AMP for 12 h exhibited elevations in total cellular contents of GLUT1 (but not GLUT4) protein to about 1.5- and 2.5-fold above controls, respectively. Although such treatments of cells with cholera toxin (12 h) versus insulin (30 min) caused similar 10-fold enhancements of deoxyglucose transport, a striking discrepancy was observed with respect to the content of glucose transporter proteins in the plasma membrane fraction. While insulin elicited a 2.6-fold increase in the levels of GLUT4 protein in the plasma membrane fraction, cholera toxin increased the amount of this transporter by only 30%. Insulin or cholera toxin increased the levels of GLUT1 protein in the plasma membrane fraction equally (1.6-fold). Thus, a greater number of glucose transporters in the plasma membrane fraction is associated with transport stimulation by insulin compared to cholera toxin. We conclude that: 1) at early times (4 h) after the addition of cholera toxin or dibutyryl cyclic AMP to 3T3-L1 adipocytes, redistribution of glucose transporters to the plasma membrane appears to contribute to elevated deoxyglucose uptake rates, and 2) the stimulation of hexose uptake after prolonged treatment (12-18 h) of cells with cholera toxin may involve an additional increase in the intrinsic activity of one or both glucose transporter isoforms.     

ArPIKfyve-PIKfyve interaction and role in insulin-regulated GLUT4 translocation and glucose transport in 3T3-L1 adipocytes

Insulin activates glucose transport by promoting translocation of the insulin-sensitive fat/muscle-specific glucose transporter GLUT4 from an intracellular storage compartment to the cell surface. Here we report that an optimal insulin effect on glucose uptake in 3T3-L1 adipocytes is dependent upon expression of both PIKfyve, the sole enzyme for PtdIns 3,5-P(2) biosynthesis, and the PIKfyve activator, ArPIKfyve. Small-interfering RNAs that selectively ablated PIKfyve or ArPIKfyve in this cell type depleted the PtdIns 3,5-P(2) pool and reduced insulin-activated glucose uptake to a comparable degree. Combined loss of PIKfyve and ArPIKfyve caused further PtdIns 3,5-P(2) ablation that correlated with greater attenuation in insulin responsiveness. Loss of PIKfyve-ArPIKfyve reduced insulin-stimulated Akt phosphorylation and the cell surface accumulation of GLUT4 or IRAP, but not GLUT1-containing vesicles without affecting overall expression of these proteins. ArPIKfyve and PIKfyve were found to physically associate in 3T3-L1 adipocytes and this was insulin independent. In vitro labeling of membranes isolated from basal or insulin-stimulated 3T3-L1 adipocytes documented substantial insulin-dependent increases of PtdIns 3,5-P(2) production on intracellular membranes. Together, the data demonstrate for the first time a physical association between functionally related PIKfyve and ArPIKfyve in 3T3-L1 adipocytes and indicate that the novel ArPIKfyve-PIKfyve-PtdIns 3,5-P(2) pathway is physiologically linked to insulin-activated GLUT4 translocation and glucose transport.     

A role for kinesin in insulin-stimulated GLUT4 glucose transporter translocation in 3T3-L1 adipocytes

Insulin regulates glucose uptake in adipocytes and muscle by stimulating the movement of sequestered glucose transporter 4 (GLUT4) proteins from intracellular membranes to the cell surface. Here we report that optimal insulin-mediated GLUT4 translocation is dependent upon both microtubule and actin-based cytoskeletal structures in cultured adipocytes. Depolymerization of microtubules and F-actin in 3T3-L1 adipocytes causes the dispersion of perinuclear GLUT4-containing membranes and abolishes insulin action on GLUT4 movements to the plasma membrane. Furthermore, heterologous expression in 3T3-L1 adipocytes of the microtubule-binding protein hTau40, which impairs kinesin motors that move toward the plus ends of microtubules, markedly delayed the appearance of GLUT4 at the plasma membrane in response to insulin. The hTau40 protein had no detectable effect on microtubule structure or perinuclear GLUT4 localization under these conditions. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that both the actin and microtubule-based cytoskeleton, as well as a kinesin motor, direct the translocation of GLUT4 to the plasma membrane in response to insulin.     

灵芝多糖对3T3-L1胰岛素抵抗细胞模型PI-3K p85和GLUT4蛋白表达的影响

目的 研究灵芝多糖对3T3-L1胰岛素抵抗细胞模型PI-3K p85和GLUT4蛋白表达的影响,探讨灵芝多糖改善胰岛素抵抗的分子机制.方法 3T3-L1前脂肪细胞经1-甲基-3-异丁基-黄嘌呤、地塞米松、胰岛素诱导分化成3T3-L1脂肪细胞,以葡萄糖氧化酶法测定培养液中残余的葡萄糖含量.比较二甲双胍组,检测培养液中葡萄糖含量及PI-3K p85和GLUT4蛋白表达变化.结果 地塞米松联合胰岛素诱导3T3-L1脂肪细胞产生胰岛素抵抗,细胞对葡萄糖的摄取量减少.灵芝多糖可改善3T3-L1脂肪细胞胰岛素抵抗.胰岛素抵抗细胞的PI-3K p85和GLUT4蛋白表达明显减少;应用灵芝多糖后,相关蛋白表达增加.结论 灵芝多糖通过提高PI-3K p85和GLUT4蛋白的表达,参与胰岛素抵抗状态下3T3-L1细胞的葡萄糖代谢.     

人源FGF-21在脂肪细胞糖代谢中的作用

近年来研究发现,成纤维细胞生长因子(FGF)-21是一种新的代谢调节因子.为了深入研究人源FGF-21（hFGF-21）的生物活性,本实验利用SUMO高效表达载体,高效表达成熟的hFGF-21,并利用小鼠3T3-L1脂肪细胞检测hFGF-21的糖代谢活性．实验结果表明,hFGF-21可促进脂肪细胞的葡萄糖吸收,且葡萄糖吸收效率呈剂量依赖性．hFGF-21作用4 h即可促进脂肪细胞糖吸收,其活性可持续24 h以上．hFGF-21与胰岛素共同作用的葡萄糖吸收效果,明显优于它们的单独作用结果,说明hFGF-21与胰岛素发挥协同作用．脂肪细胞经hFGF-21预处理后,显著增加了胰岛素促进脂肪细胞吸收葡萄糖的效率,说明hFGF-21可以增加胰岛素的敏感性．本实验为临床应用hFGF-21治疗糖尿病,增加胰岛素敏感性提供了依据．     

Enhanced Glucose Uptake in Phenylbutyric Acid-Treated 3T3-L1 Adipocytes

Diabetes Mellitus is a chronic metabolic disease marked by altered glucose homeostasis and insulin resistance. The phosphatase PTEN antagonizes the insulin-induced-PI3K-driven cascade that normally leads to GLUT4 membrane translocation. This study investigates the effect of Phenylbutyric Acid (PBA), a chemical chaperone and a potential mediator of PTEN activity, on glucose uptake in differentiated 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Adipocyte differentiation status was quantified by Oil Red O staining and the expression of AP2. Baseline and insulin-induced adipocyte glucose uptake were assayed with and without PBA treatment. Expression of GLUT1, GLUT4, PIP3, pAkt, pPTEN, and PARK-7 was examined by western blot. Plasma membrane expression of GLUT4 was determined using immunofluorescence. Leptin and adiponectin secretion was measure by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. PBA treatment, alone or with insulin induction, significantly increased glucose uptake in 3T3-L1 adipocytes. PBA significantly increased GLUT1 but not GLUT4 total protein expression. However, a significant increase in membrane GLUT4 protein translocation was observed. The expression of PIP3 and pAkt increased indicating enhanced PI3k pathway activity. There was a significant decrease in PTEN activity as evident by a rise in the phosphorylated form of this protein. PARK7 protein expression increased with PBA. Treating differentiated adipocytes with PBA did not alter their differentiation status, but decreased the leptin to adiponectin ratio. Conclusion: this study showed that PBA enhances adipocyte glucose uptake potentially through its effect on glucose transporter expression and/or trafficking via the PI3K signaling pathway; suggesting PBA as a possible candidate for the ancillary management of diabetes.     

Activation of cell surface glucose transporters measured by photoaffinity labeling of insulin-sensitive 3T3-L1 adipocytes.

Several studies have demonstrated that the intrinsic catalytic activity of cell surface glucose transporters is highly regulated in 3T3-L1 adipocytes expressing GLUT1 (erythrocyte/brain) and GLUT4 (adipocyte/skeletal muscle) glucose transporter isoforms. For example, inhibition of protein synthesis in these cells by anisomycin or cycloheximide leads to marked increases in hexose transport without a change in the levels of cell surface glucose transporter proteins (Clancy, B. M., Harrison, S. A., Buxton, J. M., and Czech, M. P. (1991) J. Biol. Chem. 266, 10122-10130). In the present work the exofacial hexose binding sites on GLUT1 and GLUT4 in anisomycin-treated 3T3-L1 adipocytes were labeled with the cell-impermeant photoaffinity reagent [2-3H]2-N-[4-(1-azitrifluoroethyl)benzoyl]-1,3-bis- (D-mannos-4-yloxy)-2-propylamine [( 2-3H] ATB-BMPA) to determine which isoform is activated by protein synthetic blockade. As expected, a 15-fold increase in 2-deoxyglucose uptake in response to insulin was associated with 1.7- and 2.6-fold elevations in plasma membrane GLUT1 and GLUT4 protein levels, respectively. Anisomycin treatment of cultured adipocytes for 5 h produced an 8-fold stimulation of hexose transport but no increase in the content of glucose transporters in the plasma membrane fraction as measured by protein immunoblot analysis. Cell surface GLUT1 levels were also shown to be unaffected on 3T3-L1 adipocytes in response to anisomycin using an independent method, the binding of an antiexofacial GLUT1 antibody to intact cells. In contrast, anisomycin fully mimicked the action of insulin to stimulate (about 4-fold) the radiolabeling of GLUT1 transporters specifically immunoprecipitated from intact 3T3-L1 adipocytes irradiated after incubation with [2-3H] ATB-BMPA. Photolabeling of GLUT4 under these conditions was also significantly enhanced (1.8-fold) by anisomycin treatment, but this effect was only 15% of that caused by insulin. These results suggest that: 1) the photoaffinity reagent [2-3H]ATB-BMPA labels those cell surface glucose transporters present in a catalytically active state rather than total cell surface transporters as assumed previously and 2) inhibition of protein synthesis in 3T3-L1 adipocytes stimulates sugar transport primarily by enhancing the intrinsic catalytic activity of cell surface GLUT1, and to a lesser extent, GLUT4 proteins.     

Emodin with PPARgamma ligand-binding activity promotes adipocyte differentiation and increases glucose uptake in 3T3-Ll cells

Emodin, one of the main active components in the root and rhizome of Rheum palmatum L, promoted the conversion of 3T3-L1 fibroblasts to adipocytes, as evidenced by increased glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GPDH) activity and the expression of adipocyte aP2 mRNA, as well as accelerated triacylglycerol (TG) accumulation, which was associated with increased mRNA expression levels of both C/EBPalpha and PPARgamma2. By using surface plasmon resonance (SPR) experiment, it was showed that emodin exhibited a very high binding affinity to PPARgamma. In differentiated 3T3-L1 adipocytes, emodin induced a time- and dose-dependent increase in glucose uptake as well as GLUT1 and GLUT4 mRNA expression, and the rate of uptake was partly abrogated by wortmannin (phosphoinositide 3-kinase inhibitor). Meanwhile, insulin-stimulated glucose uptake was increased significantly after treatment with low doses of emodin, and the degree of potentiation was decreased thereafter in response to increasing concentrations. Furthermore, 50 microM emodin profoundly inhibited insulin-stimulated glucose uptake by 25%. These data suggest a new role for emodin as a PPARgamma agonist in 3T3-L1 cells. Besides, it is possible that emodin may also possess other properties contribute to glucose utilization in the adipocytes.     

Dimethyl sulfoxide enhances GLUT4 translocation through a reduction in GLUT4 endocytosis in insulin-stimulated 3T3-L1 adipocytes

Insulin increases muscle and fat cell glucose uptake by inducing the translocation of glucose transporter GLUT4 from intracellular compartments to the plasma membrane. Here, we have demonstrated that in 3T3-L1 adipocytes, DMSO at concentrations higher than 7.5% augmented cell surface GLUT4 levels in the absence and presence of insulin, but that at lower concentrations, DMSO only enhanced GLUT4 levels in insulin-stimulated cells. At a 5% concentration, DMSO also increased cell surface levels of the transferrin receptor and GLUT1. Glucose uptake experiments indicated that while DMSO enhanced cell surface glucose transporter levels, it also inhibited glucose transporter activity. Our studies further demonstrated that DMSO did not sensitize the adipocytes for insulin and that its effect on GLUT4 was readily reversible (t1/2∼12 min) and maintained in insulin-resistant adipocytes. An enhancement of insulin-induced GLUT4 translocation was not observed in 3T3-L1 preadipocytes and L6 myotubes, indicating cell specificity. DMSO did not enhance insulin signaling nor exocytosis of GLUT4 vesicles, but inhibited GLUT4 internalization. While other chemical chaperones (glycerol and 4-phenyl butyric acid) also acutely enhanced insulin-induced GLUT4 translocation, these effects were not mediated via changes in GLUT4 endocytosis. We conclude that DMSO is the first molecule to be described that instantaneously enhances insulin-induced increases in cell surface GLUT4 levels in adipocytes, at least in part through a reduction in GLUT4 endocytosis.     

Efficient adenovirus transduction of 3T3-L1 adipocytes stably expressing coxsackie-adenovirus receptor

3T3-L1 adipocytes have proven difficult to transfect with plasmid-encoded cDNAs or even infect with virally-derived cDNAs. We have developed and characterized a 3T3-L1 adipocyte cell line stably expressing the truncated receptor for coxsackievirus and adenovirus receptor (CAR) for its ability to be infected with adenoviruses at a low multiplicity of infection (m.o.i.). Using green fluorescent protein driven by the cytomegalovirus promoter in adenovirus fiber type 5 we compared infection efficiencies of CAR adipocytes versus the parental 3T3-L1 adipocytes. As assessed by immunofluorescence, CAR adipocytes were infected at approximately 100-fold greater efficiency than regular 3T3-L1 adipocytes. The efficiency of transduction for the CAR adipocytes was >90% at multiplicities of infection of 50 whereas standard adipocytes were poorly transduced even at an m.o.i. of 2000. Since many investigators studying insulin action use 3T3-L1 adipocytes, we compared CAR adipocytes versus regular adipocytes and showed that the two cell lines were similar with respect to insulin stimulation of insulin receptor, MAPK, and Akt phosphorylation and basal- and insulin-stimulated glucose transport. In addition, CAR adipocytes accumulated GLUT4 and SCD1 proteins during the adipogenesis program with the same time course as regular 3T3-L1 adipocytes. Lastly, CAR adipocytes produced and secreted the adipose-specific hormone Acrp30. These data suggest 3T3-L1CARDelta1 adipocytes are virtually indistinguishable from their parental cells, but demonstrate a significant advantage with improved efficiency of adenoviral transduction for gain or deletion of function studies.