Nanogel-based delivery system enhances PGE2 effects on bone formation

Recovery of bone loss is one of the active research issues in bone medicine due to the need for efficient measures for bone gain. We examined here a novel drug delivery system using a nanogel of cholesterol-bearing pullulan (CHP) in combination with prostaglandin E2 (PGE2). PGE2 or PGE2/CHP, vehicle (saline containing 0.06% ethanol and 0.02% Tween 80) or CHP were injected on to the calvariae of mice once every day for 5 days per week for 4 weeks. Low dosage of PGE2 (0.6 microg) alone or CHP alone did not induce new bone formation in this system. In contrast, PGE2 (0.6 microg)/CHP induced new bone formation. Bone formation activities of PGE2 was enhanced by CHP nanogels only at the site of injection (calvaria) but not in the distant sites of the skeleton, showing that PGE2/CHP could avoid systemic effects. In spite of the fact that previously reported animal models of bone formation by PGE2 were associated with loss of body weight, bone formation based on PGE2/CHP did not associate with loss of body weight. Furthermore, only a single application of PGE2 in combination with nanogel cross-linking hydrogel sphere (PGE2/CHP-PEO) induced new bone formation. Thus, nanogel-based delivery system is an efficient delivery system of bone anabolic agent, PGE2.     

Use of Bordetella bronchiseptica and Bordetella pertussis as live vaccines and vectors for heterologous antigens

Bordetella pertussis and Bordetella bronchiseptica are respiratory pathogens of humans and animals respectively. Unlike many bacteria, they are able to efficiently colonise healthy ciliated respiratory mucosa. This characteristic of Bordetella spp. can potentially be exploited to develop efficient live vaccines and vectors for delivery of heterologous antigens to the respiratory tract. Here we review the progress in this area.     

基因工程疫苗的病毒载体

病毒基因工程疫苗是以活病毒为载体将一段外源基因导入机体细胞内,并使外源基因维持较高水平的表达。通过使用复制型或复制缺陷型载体能使表达的抗原诱生机体产生相应的体液抗体,并能引起机体产生细胞介导的免疫反应及粘膜免疫反应。本文主要介绍有可能用于基因工程疫苗的DNA及RNA病毒载体构建及其应用。     

红细胞伪装纳米颗粒:一个具有潜力的药物及疫苗递送系统

红细胞伪装纳米颗粒是一种以红细胞或红细胞膜纳米囊泡为载体在体内递送药物、酶、多肽和抗原等物质的系统,具有生物相容性好、循环周期长、靶向性强等优势。本文从红细胞载体的种类、发展历程、递送策略应用以及其局限性和未来的挑战等方面进行了详细阐述,并展望了其未来的发展方向。     

免疫不育疫苗的研究进展

免疫不育疫苗主要以哺乳动物的精子或卵子蛋白以及在受精和胚胎早期发育过程中发挥重要作用的激素为靶抗原。以激素为抗原的不育疫苗产生的不育效果多为不可逆的,且对机体损伤较大。以精子表面抗原制备的疫苗能够诱导产生精子抗体和不育效果,目前已成为避孕研究的一个热点。哺乳动物卵透明带（zona pellucida,ZP）是覆盖于卵母细胞及着床前受精卵外的一层基质,其在调节精卵特异性结合、诱导获能精子发生顶体反应和阻止多精受精等方面发挥着重要作用。ZP相对分子质量较小且免疫原性强,是免疫不育疫苗理想的靶抗原,抗ZP抗体可阻断精卵结合,故可被用作人类避孕和免疫不育控制有害动物种群数量的靶抗原,但人用ZP疫苗免疫机体后造成的卵巢功能损伤和免疫抑制等问题尚有待明确。     

Mitigating the looming vaccine crisis: production and delivery of plasmid-based vaccines

The exponentially growing human population and the emergence of new diseases are clear indications that the world can no longer depend solely on conventional vaccine technologies and production schemes. The race to find a new vaccine technology is crucial to help speed up and complement the World Health Organization (WHO) disease elimination program. The ultimate goal is to uncover fast and efficient production schemes in the event of a pandemic, and also to effectively fight deadly diseases such as malaria, bird flu, hepatitis, and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Plasmid DNA vaccines, if properly formulated, offer specific priming of the immune system and similar or even better prophylactic effects than conventional vaccines. This article discusses many of the critical issues that need to be considered when developing fast, effective, and reliable plasmid DNA vaccine manufacturing processes. Different modes of plasmid production via bacterial fermentation are compared. Plasmid purification by chromatography is specifically discussed as it is the most commercially viable bioprocess engineering technique for continuous purification of supercoiled plasmid DNA. Current techniques and progress covering the area of plasmid DNA vaccine design, formulation, and delivery are also put forward.     

Formulation of a dry powder influenza vaccine for nasal delivery

The purpose of this research was to prepare a dry powder vaccine formulation containing whole inactivated influenza virus (VIIV) and a mucoadhesive compound suitable for nasal delivery. Powders containing WIIV and either lactose or trehalose were produced by lyophilization. A micro-ball mill was used to reduce the lyophilized cake to sizes suitable for nasal delivery. Chitosan flakes were reduced in size using a cryo-milling technique. Milled powders were sieved between 45 and 125 μm aggregate sizes and characterized for particle size and distribution, morphology, and flow properties. Powders were blended in the micro-ball mill without the ball. Lyophilization followed by milling produced irregularly shaped, polydisperse particles with a median primary particle diameter of ≈21 μm and a yield of ≈37% of particles in the 45 to 125 μm particle size range. Flow properties of lactose and trehalose powders after lyophilization followed by milling and sieving were similar. Cryo-milling produced a small yield of particles in the desired size range (<10%). Lyophilization followed by milling and sieving produced particles suitable for nasal delivery with different physicochemical properties as a function of processing conditions and components of the formulation. Further optimization of particle size and morphology is required for these powders to be suitable for clinical evaluation. Published: March 10, 2006     

Immunological dynamics in response to two anthrax vaccines in mice

In order to understand the variation of humoral and cellular immune responses to A16R live spore and AVA vaccine and to identify efficient immunological parameters for the early evaluation of post immu- nization in mice, we dynamically monitored the antibody production and cellular responses after the vaccination of Balb/C mice with the anthrax vaccines. The results show that both anti-AVA and anti-Spore antibodies were detectable in the A16R live spore vaccinated group while high titers of anti-AVA antibodies but not anti-Spore antibodies existed in the AVA-immunized group. IgG1 and IgG2 were the major subtypes of IgG in both of the two groups. However, the IgG2a level was significantly higher in the A16R group than in the AVA group. At the cellular level, responses of antigen-specific TH2, TH1 and plasma cells were detected. The peripheral TH2 responses could be seen on day 5 after vac- cination, and remained at a high level throughout the experiment (from day 5 post primary immuniza- tion to day 60 post the tertiary immunization); the TH1 responses to A16R vaccine appeared on day 5, while the responses to AVA could only be detected by day 7 after the secondary immunization; a low level of TH1 responses could be observed at the end of the experiment. Antigen-specific plasma cells could be found in the peripheral blood of both the immunized groups, however, the responses in the A16R group appeared earlier, lasted longer, and shown an ascending tendency until the end of the ex- periment when the plasma cell responses in the AVA group were reduced to a very low level. The re- sults suggest that the multiple antigen containing A16R live spore vaccine induces better immune re- sponses than AVA. Combined with serum antibody titers, TH2, TH1 and plasma cell responses could be used as immunological parameters for the evaluation of vaccine efficacy. These findings may afford new insight into the early evaluation of vaccination as well as being a powerful strategy for vaccine development.     

Immune responses dependent on antigen location in recombinant attenuated Salmonella typhimurium vaccines following oral immunization

The subcellular location of a recombinant antigen in recombinant attenuated Salmonella vaccines may influence immunogenicity dependent on exposure of the recombinant antigen to cells involved in systemic immune responses. It has been shown that a recombinant attenuated Salmonella vaccine secreting the recombinant Streptococcus pneumoniae PspA (rPspA) antigen specified by pYA3494 induced protective anti-rPspA-specific immune responses (Kang et al. (2002) Infect. Immun. 70, 1739-1749). A recombinant plasmid pYA3496 specifying a His(6)-tagged rPspA (His(6)-rPspA) protein (no apparent signal sequence) caused the rPspA antigen to localize to the cytoplasm of Salmonella. Salmonella vaccines carrying pYA3494 or pYA3496 expressed similar amounts of rPspA. After a single oral immunization in BALB/c mice with 10(9) colony-forming units (CFU) of the recombinant Salmonella vaccines carrying pYA3494 or pYA3496, IgG antibody responses were stimulated to both rPspA and Salmonella lipopolysaccharide (LPS) antigens. The anti-rPspA IgG titer induced by Salmonella carrying pYA3494 (1.9 x 10(7)) was 10(4) times higher than induced by Salmonella carrying pYA3496 (<2.4 x 10(3)).     

生物法合成伤寒O-糖蛋白结合疫苗及其免疫原性评估

伤寒由伤寒沙门氏菌(Salmonella Typhi)引发,至今在发展中国家仍是备受关注的重要公共卫生问题。文章通过敲除伤寒菌脂多糖合成途径中O-抗原连接酶基因,转入含脑膜炎奈瑟球菌(Neisseria meningitidis)蛋白糖基化途径中糖基转移酶的表达载体,以及改构的重组铜绿假单胞菌(Pseudomonas Aeruginosa)外毒素A(rEPA_N29)的表达载体,使细胞内能够诱导合成以伤寒O特异性多糖(O-specific polysaccharides, OPS)为目标抗原、以rEPA_N29为载体蛋白的伤寒OPS-rEPA_N29糖蛋白复合物,并对纯化所得复合物进行了免疫原性评价。ELISA测定血清抗体滴度表明,rEPA_N29作为载体蛋白能有效增加糖链的免疫原性,糖蛋白比单独的多糖能诱导产生更好的免疫应答;3次免疫、间隔3周比间隔2周IgG滴度稍有提高;而免疫过量的糖蛋白,抗O-多糖的血清抗体效价并无提升。文章为生物法制备多糖-蛋白结合疫苗提供了新思路,理论上也适用于其他革兰氏阴性菌的疫苗研发。     

Intranasal and oral vaccination with protein-based antigens: advantages,challenges and formulation strategies

pathogens initiate their infections at the human mucosal surface. Therefore, mucosal vaccination, especially through oral or intranasal administration routes, is highly desired for infectious diseases. Meanwhile, protein-based antigens provide a safer alternative to the whole pathogen or DNA based ones in vaccine development. However, the unique biopharmaceutical hurdles that intranasally or orally delivered protein vaccines need to overcome before they reach the sites of targeting, the relatively low immunogenicity, as well as the low stability of the protein antigens, require thoughtful and fine-tuned mucosal vaccine formulations, including the selection of immunostimulants, the identification of the suitable vaccine delivery system, and the determination of the exact composition and manufacturing conditions. This review aims to provide an up-to-date survey of the protein antigen-based vaccine formulation development, including the usage of immunostimulants and the optimization of vaccine delivery systems for intranasal and oral administrations.     

新型疫苗佐剂的研究进展

近年来,核酸疫苗、基因工程疫苗、合成肽疫苗等新型疫苗的研究取得快速的发展,但这些疫苗与传统的灭活或活体疫苗相比,往往存在免疫原性差等问题,因此需要佐剂来增强其作用.佐剂已被证明是疫苗中的关键成分,佐剂种类众多,尚无统一的分类方法,目前应用最多的佐剂是铝佐剂和弗氏佐剂,但随着新型疫苗的开发,新型佐剂的开发必不可少.根据目...     

Predicting the optimal geometry of microneedles and their array for dermal vaccination using a computational model

Microneedle arrays have been developed to deliver a range of biomolecules including vaccines into the skin. These microneedles have been designed with a wide range of geometries and arrangements within an array. However, little is known about the effect of the geometry on the potency of the induced immune response. The aim of this study was to develop a computational model to predict the optimal design of the microneedles and their arrangement within an array. The three-dimensional finite element model described the diffusion and kinetics in the skin following antigen delivery with a microneedle array. The results revealed an optimum distance between microneedles based on the number of activated antigen presenting cells, which was assumed to be related to the induced immune response. This optimum depends on the delivered dose. In addition, the microneedle length affects the number of cells that will be involved in either the epidermis or dermis. By contrast, the radius at the base of the microneedle and release rate only minimally influenced the number of cells that were activated. The model revealed the importance of various geometric parameters to enhance the induced immune response. The model can be developed further to determine the optimal design of an array by adjusting its various parameters to a specific situation.     

Box-Behnken experimental design in the development of a nasal drug delivery system of model drug hydroxyurea: Characterization of viscosity,in vitro drug release,droplet size,and dynamic surface tension

The purpose of the research was to investigate the changes in physicochemical properties and their influence on nasal formulation performance using 5-factor, 3-level Box-Behnken experimental design on the combined responses of viscosity, droplet size distribution (DSD), and drug release. Gel formulations of hydroxyurea (HU) with surface-active polymers (hydroxyethylcellulose [HEC] and polyethylene-oxide [PEO]) and ionic excipients (sodium chloride and calcium chloride) were prepared using Box-Behnken experimental design. The rheology and dynamic surface tension (DST) of the test formulations was investigated using LV-DV-III Brookfield rheometer and T60 SITA tensiometer, respectively. Droplet size analysis of nasal aerosols was determined by laser diffraction using the Malvern Spraytec with the InnovaSystems actuator. In vitro drug release studies were conducted on Franz diffusion cells. With PEO gel, calcium chloride increased the viscosity and DSD and retarded drug release, while sodium chloride decreased the viscosity, DST, and DSD and accelerated the release of HU. With HEC gel, the addition of the above salts resulted in less significant changes in viscosity, DSD, and DST, but both salts significantly increased the release of HU. Droplet size data obtained from a high viscosity nasal pump was dependent on type of polymer, polymer-excipient interactions, and solvent properties. The applications of Box-Behnken experimental design facilitated the prediction and identified major excipient influences on viscosity, DSD, and in vitro drug release. Published: November 17, 2005     

Risk analysis for plant-made vaccines

The production of vaccines in transgenic plants was first proposed in 1990 however no product has yet reached commercialization. There are several risks during the production and delivery stages of this technology, with potential impact on the environment and on human health. Risks to the environment include gene transfer and exposure to antigens or selectable marker proteins. Risks to human health include oral tolerance, allergenicity, inconsistent dosage, worker exposure and unintended exposure to antigens or selectable marker proteins in the food chain. These risks are controllable through appropriate regulatory measures at all stages of production and distribution of a potential plant-made vaccine. Successful use of this technology is highly dependant on stewardship and active risk management by the developers of this technology, and through quality standards for production, which will be set by regulatory agencies. Regulatory agencies can also negatively affect the future viability of this technology by requiring that all risks must be controlled, or by applying conventional regulations which are overly cumbersome for a plant production and oral delivery system. The value of new or replacement vaccines produced in plant cells and delivered orally must be considered alongside the probability and severity of potential risks in their production and use, and the cost of not deploying this technology – the risk of continuing with the status quo alternative.     

靶向M细胞的抗原递送¾¾增强黏膜免疫应答的关键策略

黏膜是阻止病原入侵的第一道防线,黏膜免疫系统在抵抗感染方面起着至关重要的作用。通过黏膜途径接种疫苗可以同时诱导黏膜和全身免疫反应,因此,理论上针对黏膜的免疫策略是最合理和有效的。但黏膜免疫系统的复杂性和屏障作用造成抗原诱导的免疫应答水平低下,制约了黏膜疫苗的发展。M细胞(Microfoldcells)是黏膜免疫系统所独有的,其具有捕获腔内抗原和启动抗原特异性免疫应答的功能。M细胞摄取抗原的多少直接关系到黏膜疫苗的免疫效力,而利用M细胞配体可将抗原靶向递呈给M细胞,从而实现高效的黏膜免疫应答。靶向M细胞的抗原递送策略及其应用可以提高黏膜免疫应答水平,促进黏膜疫苗的研制。尽管如此,要成功研制安全高效的黏膜疫苗,今后依然有漫长的路要走,这可能有赖于进一步探究M细胞的特性和功能及黏膜免疫机制。     

Immunosome technology to improve antigen presentation for efficient and safe viral vaccines

The role of liposomes in antigen presentation and in induction of humoral and cell-mediated immune responses has been investigated by anchoring viral envelope glycoproteins into the phospholipidic bilayer of preformed liposomes to produce Immunosomes. Using purified glycoproteins of three different enveloped viruses, it was found that in mice immunosomes induced high titres of neutralizing antibodies, whereas equal amounts of the purified glycoproteins alone failed to induce or induced much lower neutralizing antibodies. Similarly, immunosomes induced in vaccinated animals antigenspecific interleukin-2 production upon in vitro restimulation with the same antigen, whereas no secondary response was observed in animals vaccinated with equal amounts of the free antigen. Finally, influenza and rabies immunosomes were shown to be efficient in protecting animals from a challenge with the corresponding virulent strain.     

裂解系统在细菌载体疫苗中的应用

重组细菌载体疫苗因其能够诱导机体产生粘膜免疫、体液免疫和细胞免疫的特点,已经被广泛用作递送保护性抗原和核酸疫苗的载体来预防某些传染病。但是重组到细菌载体疫苗中的保护性抗原和核酸难以穿越细菌细胞壁释放到宿主细胞内发挥作用,残留在动物或畜禽产品中的疫苗菌株还可能造成环境的污染和疫苗菌株的传播。而有效解决这些问题的方法是构建一种细菌自动裂解系统,使疫苗菌株能够在体外培养时正常生长而在体内环境中自动裂解死亡。目前主要应用的细菌裂解系统包括:基于调控延迟肽聚糖合成的裂解系统、基于噬菌体裂解蛋白调控的裂解系统、基于毒素-抗毒素系统(Toxin-antitoxin system)的裂解系统。此外,一种潜在的基于细菌Ⅵ型分泌系统(Type Ⅵ secretion system,T6SS)的裂解系统也有望成为构建自动裂解菌株的新方法。文中将着重对这几种裂解系统的调控机制进行阐述。     

Salmonella vaccines for use in humans: present and future perspectives

In recent years there has been significant progress in the development of attenuated Salmonella enterica serovar Typhi strains as candidate typhoid fever vaccines. In clinical trials these vaccines have been shown to be well tolerated and immunogenic. For example, the attenuated S. enterica var. Typhi strains CVD 908-htrA (aroC aroD htrA), Ty800 (phoP phoQ) and chi4073 (cya crp cdt) are all promising candidate typhoid vaccines. In addition, clinical trials have demonstrated that S. enterica var. Typhi vaccines expressing heterologous antigens, such as the tetanus toxin fragment C, can induce immunity to the expressed antigens in human volunteers. In many cases, the problems associated with expression of antigens in Salmonella have been successfully addressed and the future of Salmonella vaccine development is very promising.