Evolution of parental care in dart poison frogs (Amphibia: Anura: Dendrobatidae)

Dendrobatid frogs perform a unique mode of parental care, ranging from egg attendance and tadpole transport to tadpole feeding. It is hypothesized that a behaviour in which the egg attending parent remains with the cluch is the most primitive condition. In more advanced forms or parental care, the male is able to attend several clutches of eggs. Tadpole attendance and feeding, finally, started as deceit; the male induced the female to lay eggs into a bromeliad leaf axil already occupied by a larva. Costs and benefits of the different modes of parental care and possible alternative reproductive tactics are discussed.     

Allopaternal care in the tessellated darter,Etheostoma olmstedi (Pisces: Percidae)

Synopsis Large male tessellated darters, Etheostoma olmstedi, defend flat-bottomed rocks, the undersides of which serve as spawning substrates. Because females attach eggs directly onto bare stone, a spawning bout necessarily decreases the surface area available for further breeding at a nest. In apparent response to the female preference of ovipositing on rocks with the most bare surface, fathers abandon nests with their attached offspring to search for rocks with more uncovered surface. Egg abandonment also results after roving fathers intercept and spawn with ripe females and remain at a different rock to care for a new clutch. In essence, large males appear to maximize the number of eggs they fertilize by sequentially monopolizing breeding patches that are temporarily most desirable to females. The costs to a father of abandoning his eggs appear to be low for two reasons: (1) non-territorial males, created by a scarcity of suitable rocks, readily occupy vacant nests, and clean and aerate the abandoned eggs; and (2) after water hardening, eggs are less vulnerable to cannibalism. The maintenance of eggs by nonparental males may be both incidental to scrubbing the ceiling for their own breeding and adaptive in that viable eggs stimulate females to spawn; neither would appear to involve parental investment costs. Thus, allopaternal care in the tessellated darter may have evolved because it is performed in the selfish pursuit of spawning opportunities while entailing little, if any, of the costs normally subsumed within parental investment.     

Father absence, parental care, and female reproductive development

This study examines female reproductive development from an evolutionary life history perspective. Retrospective data are for 10,847 U.S. women. Results indicate that timing of parental separation is associated with reproductive development and is not confounded with socioeconomic variables or phenotypic correlations with mothers' reproductive behavior. Divorce/separation between birth and 5 years predicted early menarche, first sexual intercourse, first pregnancy, and shorter duration of first marriage. Separation in adolescence was the strongest predictor of number of sex partners. Multiple changes in childhood caretaking environment were associated with early menarche, first sex, first pregnancy, greater number of sex partners, and shorter duration of marriage. Living with either the father or mother after separation had similar effect on reproductive development. Living with a stepfather showed a weak, but significant, association with reproductive development, however, duration of stepfather exposure was not a significant predictor of development. Difference in amount and quality of direct parental care (vs. indirect parental investment) in two- and single-parent households may be the primary factor linking family environment to reproductive development.     

Experimentally-elevated testosterone, female parental care, and reproductive success in a songbird, the Dark-eyed Junco (Junco hyemalis)

In male dark-eyed juncos (Junco hyemalis), experimentally elevated testosterone (T) decreases male parental care and offspring survival, but results in higher overall fitness through greater mating success. To help address the ensuing question of what prevents selection from favoring higher levels of T in male juncos, we manipulated T in female juncos. A previous study demonstrated no effect of experimentally elevated T on female incubation behavior, suggesting that female parental behavior might be insensitive to T. In this study we asked whether experimentally elevated T mediates other female parental behaviors and whether variation in T-mediated parental behavior might influence reproductive success. We videotaped free-living control- and T-females during nesting to quantify brooding behavior when young were 3 days old and provisioning behavior when young were 6 days old. Nest defense was measured by quantifying responses to a mounted predator placed near the nest. Reproductive success was assessed via fecundity, nestling quality, and nest survival. T-females spent less time than control females brooding but did not differ in provisioning rate. T-females performed fewer dives at the predator mount and, unlike controls, failed to increase defense as nesting progressed. T-females also had lower daily nest survival and lower nest success (odds of producing at least one fledgling). We conclude that some aspects of female parental behavior are sensitive to experimentally elevated T while others are not and consider the implications for the evolution of T-mediated characters in both sexes.     

The parental care behaviour ofParatilapia polleni (Perciformes,Labroidei), a phylogenetically primitive cichlid from Madagascar,with a discussion of the evolution of maternal care in the family Cichlidae

Synopsis The parental behaviour of the Madagascan cichlid,Paratilapia polleni, was studied in the laboratory. According to current hypotheses of phylogenetic intrarelationship for the family Cichlidae,Paratilapia is a representative of a phylogenetically primitive cichlid lineage, and as such is of particular interest in comparative evolutionary studies. Given the basal phylogenetic placement ofParatilapia it seems reasonable to expect that, if maternal participation in brood care arose within the extant Cichlidae, then the proposed plesiomorphic system of extensive male care of eggs and embryos may be retained in this taxon. This is not the case, and already by the fertilized-egg interval male and female roles inParatilapia are strongly differentiated with the female as the primary care giver. In addition to specialized behavioural roles, a unique egg morphology and mobile egg mass is described forParatilapia. The results of the study are discussed in the context of theories of the evolution of maternal brood care within the Cichlidae.     

Digestive enzyme activities in herbivorous and carnivorous prickleback fishes (Teleostei: Stichaeidae): ontogenetic, dietary, and phylogenetic effects

We measured the activities of eight digestive enzymes in four species of herbivorous and carnivorous prickleback fishes and determined the effects of ontogeny, diet, and phylogeny on these enzyme activities. Of the four species, Cebidichthys violaceus and Xiphister mucosus shift to a more herbivorous diet as they grow (> or =45 mm SL [standard length]), whereas Xiphister atropurpureus and Anoplarchus purpurescens remain carnivores throughout life. Digestive enzyme activities of small (30-40 mm SL) carnivorous juveniles were compared with those of larger (60-75 mm SL) wild-caught juveniles that had consumed a natural diet and larger (60-75 mm SL) juveniles raised on a high-protein animal diet. Cebidichthys violaceus and both species of Xiphister showed ontogenetic changes in digestive enzyme activities, whereas A. purpurescens did not. Despite dietary differences between X. atropurpureus and X. mucosus, these sister taxa displayed the most similar digestive enzyme activities from ontogenetic and dietary perspectives (high alpha-amylase and lipase and low trypsin and aminopeptidase activities), and both were more similar to C. violaceus, a member of the same largely herbivorous clade, than either was to A. purpurescens, a member of an adjacent, carnivorous clade. The results support the hypothesis that phylogeny influences digestive enzyme activities in these fishes. Anoplarchus purpurescens, a carnivore with a diverse diet, showed great plasticity in enzyme activity, especially trypsin and aminopeptidase, which were elevated in this species to the highest level among the four species after consuming the high-protein diet. These results support the hypothesis that fishes with relatively broad diets can modulate digestive enzyme activities in response to changes in dietary composition.     

Reproductive biology of Patagonotothen ramsayi (Regan, 1913) (Pisces: Nototheniidae) around the Falkland Islands

The reproductive biology of one of the most abundant notothenioids, Patagonotothen ramsayi, was investigated between February 2003 and November 2004 on the Falkland and Patagonian Shelves (Southwest Atlantic). Male and female P. ramsayi were mature at 27.6 and 24.8 cm L _T, respectively. P. ramsayi is a total spawner, with a total fecundity ranging between 24,300 and 76,700 eggs. Spawning occurs on the shelf breaks between June and August with the peak in gonado-somatic indices in June. Analysis of length frequency distributions over the year and sex ratios of mature fish during the spawning season may indicate the presence of a nesting and nest guarding behaviour in male fish, similar to other rockcods. Features of its reproductive strategy, which enabled P. ramsayi to dominate the medium-sized demersal fishes on the Patagonian shelf are discussed and compared with those of other nototheniids and cottid sculpins from the Northern Hemisphere.     

Morphology and ontogeny of multiple lateral‐line canals in the rock prickleback,Xiphister mucosus (Cottiformes: Zoarcoidei: Stichaeidae)

The structure and ontogeny of lateral‐line canals in the Rock Prickleback, Xiphister mucosus, were studied using cleared‐and‐stained specimens, and the distribution and morphology of neuromasts within lateral‐line canals were examined using histology. X. mucosus has seven cephalic canals in a pattern that, aside from four branches of the infraorbital canals, is similar to that of most teleostean fishes. Unlike most other teleosts, however, X. mucosus features multiple trunk lateral‐line canals. These include a short median posterior extension of the supratemporal canal and three paired, branching canals located on the dorsolateral, mediolateral, and ventrolateral surfaces. The ventrolateral canal (VLC) includes a loop across the ventral surface of the abdomen. All trunk canals, as well as the branches of the infraorbitals, are supported by small, dermal, ring‐like ossifications that develop independently from scales. Trunk canals develop asynchronously with the mediodorsal and dorsolateral canals (DLC) developing earliest, followed by the VLC, and, finally, by the mediolateral canal (MLC). Only the mediodorsal and DLC connect to the cephalic sensory canals. Fractal analysis shows that the complexity of the trunk lateral‐line canals stabilizes when all trunk canals develop and begin to branch. Histological sections show that neuromasts are present in all cephalic canals and in the DLC and MLC of the trunk. However, no neuromasts were identified in the VLC or its abdominal loop. The VLC cannot, therefore, directly function as a part of the mechanosensory system in X. mucosus. The evolution and functional role of multiple lateral‐line canals are discussed. J. Morphol. 276:1218–1229, 2015. © 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Phylogeny and Evolution in Cariceae (Cyperaceae): Current Knowledge and Future Directions

The goal of this study was to review the impact of DNA sequence analyses on our understanding of Cariceae phylogeny, classification and evolution. To explore character evolution, 105 taxa from four different studies were included in an nrDNA ITS + ETS 1f analysis of all recognized genera (Carex, Cymophyllus, Kobresia, Schoenoxiphium, Uncinia) and Carex subgenera (Carex, Psyllophora, Vignea, Vigneastra). As in previous analyses, four major Cariceae clades were recovered: (1) a “Core Carex Clade” (subg. Carex, Vigneastra, Psyllophora p.p); (2) A “Vignea Clade” (subg. Vignea, Psyllophora p.p.); (3) a “Schoenoxiphium Clade” (Schoenoxiphium, subg. Psyllophora p.p.), and (4) a “Core Unispicate Clade” (Uncinia, Kobresia, subg. Psyllophora p.p.). All studies provide strong support (86–100% BS) for the Core Carex and Vignea Clades, but only weak to moderate support (<50%–78% BS) for the Core Unispicate and Schoenoxiphium Clades. The relationships of these groups are unresolved. Studies suggest that Carex is either paraphyletic with respect to all Cariceae genera or to all genera except Schoenoxiphium. Kobresia is a grade, but Uncinia and possibly Schoenoxiphium are monophyletic. The monotypic Cymophyllus is indistinct from Carex subg. Psyllophora species. Character analyses indicate that inflorescence proliferation and reduction have occurred in all major clades, and that the Cariceae’s unisexual flowers have evolved from perfect flowers. The ancestor to Cariceae possessed a multispicate inflorescence with cladoprophylls and female spikelets with tristigmatic gynoecia and closed utricles. This morphology is most similar to extant Carex subg. Carex species, which contradicts the nearly unanimous assumption that the highly compound inflorescences of Schoenoxiphium are primitive. Since taxonomic sampling and statistical support for phylogenies have generally been poor, we advocate the temporary maintenance of the four traditional Carex subgenera with androgynous unispicate species placed within subg. Psyllophora and dioecious and gynaecandrous unispicate species distributed amongst subgenera Carex and Vignea. A collective effort focused on developing new nuclear markers, on increasing taxonomic and geographic sampling, and on studying development within the context of phylogeny, is needed to develop a phylogenetic classification of Cariceae.     

Storage and absorption in the digestive system of carnivorous and herbivorous prickleback fishes (Teleostei: Stichaeidae): ontogenetic, dietary, and phylogenetic effects

The effects of ontogeny, diet, and phylogeny on glycogen storage levels and esterase and alkaline phosphatase activities in four related prickleback fishes were determined in situ using quantitative histochemistry. Of these species, Cebidichthys violaceus and Xiphister mucosus shift from carnivory to herbivory at approximately 45 mm standard length (SL), whereas Xiphister atropurpureus and Anoplarchus purpurescens remain carnivores. Comparisons between small (30-40 mm SL) and larger (60-75 mm SL) wild-caught juveniles showed that glycogen storage levels and alkaline phosphatase activity were unchanged with ontogeny. Comparisons between the larger wild-caught juveniles and juveniles of the same size that had been raised on a high-protein animal diet revealed that glycogen storage level and alkaline phosphatase activity increased in all species in response to this diet. Esterase activity also increased in response to the high-protein animal diet in all four species but increased with ontogeny only in C. violaceus, X. mucosus, and X. atropurpureus, in the xiphisterine clade, and not in A. purpurescens, in the adjacent alectriine clade. Xiphister mucosus and X. atropurpureus showed indistinguishable responses in esterase activity to ontogeny and diet despite their divergent natural diets. Overall, glycogen storage level and alkaline phosphatase activity responded primarily to diet, whereas esterase activity was also influenced by ontogeny and phylogeny and differed between intestinal regions among the species.     

Reproductive behavior and spawning success of female Amblyglyphidodon leucogaster (Pisces: Pomacentridae) from the Red Sea

The reproductive behavior of female whitebelly damselfish, Amblyglyphidodon leucogaster, was investigated in the Gulf of Aqaba, Red Sea over two breeding seasons. Females were promiscuous, mating with 7–10 different males throughout the season. Females lay eggs in distinct batches, defined as the total number of eggs laid in a day. Generally females deposit a batch of eggs with one male (87.2%) and are capable of laying a new batch every other day. Egg batch size averaged 4009 eggs and females laid from 2 to 22 egg batches per season. The variation in spawning success was not correlated to body size. Females preferred to deposit eggs in nests that already contained early stage eggs (0–2 days old). Within a nest, females chose to lay eggs contiguous to the youngest egg batch, regardless if the nest contained either a single batch or multiple batches of different ages. Female within-nest spawning patterns appear to be a consequence of between nest preferences for nests with young eggs. It is proposed that the strong within-nest preference is a consequence of mate selection where females may use new egg batches as a visual cue as part of a copying style. Such a style may reduce the risk of predation and increase feeding opportunities, because less time is expended in mate selection, which would provide additional resources for egg production and ultimately increase female spawning success over the breeding season. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

The distribution of Stichaeus ochriamkini Taranetz, 1935 (Pisces: Stichaeidae) in the Peter the Great Bay of the Sea of Japan and some data on its biology

The distribution and biology of Stichaeus ochriamkini in the Peter the Great Bay was studied. Based on SCUBA diving observations and trawl catches, it was revealed that S. ochriamkini occurs at depths from 2 to 157 m, mostly on sand bottoms. The fish??s body length (TL) ranged from 20 to 162 mm. The juveniles (TL up to 60 mm) inhabited depths of 2?C9 m under water temperatures of 9.6?C22.0°C and the adults inhabited depths from 25 to 157 m at water temperatures of 1.1?C2.1°C. S. ochriamkini spawned in the Peter the Great Bay, probably in September?COctober.     

Reproductive biology of Prochilodus argenteus Agassiz, 1829 (Pisces: Prochilodontidae) in São Francisco River,Brazil

Knowledge of the main reproductive parameters of a species is fundamental for comprehension of the reproductive behavior of a species within its habitat. To evaluate the reproductive biology of curimbatá, Prochilodus argenteus, an important species for commercial fisheries of the São Francisco River basin, Brazil, 153 females and 174 males were captured during 1999–2000 in the São Francisco River. The females (maximum total length 71.2 cm and maximum weight 7.8 kg) were larger than the males (65.0 cm and 4.3 kg). The weight–length ratio indicated isometric growth for females (b = 3.15) and for males (b = 3.04). Prochilodus argenteus presented total spawning from October to January. Increase in rainfall was the main triggering factor for reproduction, showing a positive correlation with the gonadosomatic index (r = 0.84 females; r = 0.95 males). Size at gonadal maturation of females and males was 31.0 and 25.5 cm, respectively. This study provides information to aid in future implementation of captive breeding and management practices that intend to reduce the ongoing depletion of natural stocks.     

Agonistic behaviour and control of access to hiding places in two intertidal blennies, Lipophrys pholis and Coryphoblennius galerita (Pisces: Blenniidae)

In this study we investigated the relationships between dominance rank and access to shelters in captive groups of Lipophrys pholis and Coryphoblennius galerita, as well as the effects of group size and shelter availability. Dominance rank was strongly correlated with size in juvenile L. pholis and with sex and size in adult C. galerita, males being dominant over females of similar size. Access to shelters was significantly correlated with dominance rank. For both species, most interactions occurred out of shelters. Direct disputes over shelters were always initiated by the dominant fish and the initiator was always the winner. The rate of aggression per fish per unit time decreased with an increase in the number of fish in L. pholis but not in C. galerita. No significant differences were found in groups differing in the number of shelters. C. galerita showed a higher rate of agonistic interactions and a higher proportion of overt aggression than L. pholis. It is suggested that one of the functions of agonistic interactions in these fishes is the control of a set of shelters, in the network of pathways used by each individual within its home range, minimising the time required to hide in case of danger. Received in revised form: 29 January 2001 Electronic Publication     

Reproductive biology of the female little mastiff bat, Mormopterus planiceps (Chiroptera: Molossidae) in southeast Australia

The reproductive biology of the female little mastiff bat (Mormopterus planiceps) was studied from specimens obtained throughout the year in southeast Australia, within the region occupied only by the long penile form of this species. Mormopterus planiceps appeared to undergo a single pregnancy each year and was monotocous. Conception occurred during late winter/early spring after a protracted proestrus, during which the uterine/vaginal epithelia attained an extraordinary thickness; spermatozoa were present in the uterine corpus, vagina, and intramural oviduct for at least 2 months prior to ovulation, although only those present in the oviducts were entire and thus appeared to be viable. Following ovulation, a massive postovulatory infiltration of phagocytes occurred; and the thickness of the uterine corpus epithelium was dramatically reduced. As in other molossids, the tract was bicornuate and dextrally functional. The length of gestation was difficult to determine because early embryonic stages, up to implantation, appeared to span several months (late July/August/September) as did parturition (December/January). Growth of the young was slow; nevertheless, females attained sexual maturity in their first year. Several unusual features included the presence of a long os clitoridis, and tubuloalveolar sudoriferous and associated lobulated, sebaceous, paravaginal glands, which surrounded and emptied into the lower vagina. A deep fornix anterior and lateral to the cervix probably serves to receive the secondary glans penis. The epithelium of the uterine corpus was stratified and indistinguishable, in its cytology and cyclicity, from that of the vagina; furthermore, it lacked a glandular endometrium. This portion of the female tract likely receives the elongated primary glans. These findings are discussed in relation to other Molossidae and to the reproductive biology of male M. planiceps. Although the number of animals sampled was relatively small, the data suggest that this species does not exhibit the usual temperate molossid pattern of late winter/spring coincidence of spermatogenesis and ovulation. It would seem that pregnancy may begin, at least in some individuals, during the inhospitable winter months (when epididymal and uterine spermatozoa are abundant but spermatogenesis has largely terminated) and that additional conceptions continue into the early spring. The occurrence of sperm storage in both sexes of this species is unique among Molossidae studied to date.     

Female mate choice,male-male competition and parental care in the river bullhead,Cottus gobio L. (Pisces,Cottidae)

Male body size was tested for its influence on female mate choice, male-male competition and ability to defend broods in the river bullhead, Cottus gobio L., a polygynous fish with paternal care. Females presented with two potential mates of different sizes significantly preferred to spawn with the larger male. Males smaller than, or 1·5 times longer than, the female were rarely selected as mates. Larger males were more successful in defending their brood from conspecifics, which may explain female preference for them. Unmated large males displaced smaller guarding males from their nests and retained the acquired egg masses. Competition between males for nest sites with eggs can be accounted for by the preference of females for males already guarding eggs: by seizing a nest containing egg masses, a male will increase his chance of being chosen.