Environmental Risk Management Decision-Making in a Societal Context

Recent studies point to the need for improved understanding of environmental management frameworks designed to combine qualitative public and quantitative technical inputs in decision-making processes. Flux in public perception and concern about risks imply frameworks must be iterative in nature and incorporate a variety of assessment triggers in the form of decision points. A conceptual model is proposed here to explain the de facto operation of standard risk analytic frameworks within the broader sociopolitical milieu of public policy. The model is presented as a decision flow diagram that emphasizes setting environmental management goals based on societal input and the formulation of decision criteria for selecting management actions to achieve those goals. Prospective and retrospective decision control points operate to select management options that, respectively, avoid or reduce actual or predicted effects. Feedback loops that modify risk management outcomes are identified. Technical and scientific inputs (i.e., risk analysis) are assigned an essential information role within the framework and are responsible for informing the management process with the results of appropriately conducted and reviewed investigations. The proposed model is intended primarily to indicate how environmental risk management decision-making and associated technical assessments may be influenced by social pressures. It is hoped this understanding will lead to analytical transparency and better public communication of the environmental implications of policy options.     

Why Would Anyone Object? An Exploration of Social Aspects of Phytoremediation Acceptability

Referee: Mr. Peter Siebach, Environmental Engineer, U.S. Department of Energy, Chicago Operations Office, 9800 South Cass Avenue, Argonne, IL 60439 Phytoremediation comprises a suite of promising cleanup technologies that use plants to remove or contain contaminants in soil and water. To be deployed, phytoremediation must be both technically and socially acceptable. This article explores the potential social acceptability of phytoremediation options proposed for use at specific sites and describes the conceptual framework that guides our exploration. The framework, called PACT (Public Acceptability of Controversial Technologies), consists of Dialog, Technology, Constituent, and Context dimensions. It posits that remediation decision making is a social process informed by scientific and technical information, rather than a science- or technology-driven process. Although empirical data are scarce, applying PACT shows that a number of issues have the potential to impose conditions on the social acceptability of phytoremediation, and that some issues could lead to outright rejection. Further, because many of these issues concern values and goals, they cannot be resolved simply by providing better or more detailed technical information about phytoremediation. PACT is instructive in showing how even seemingly benign or desirable technologies such as phytoremediation have the potential to generate public controversy, delineating issues in ways that can help lead to their resolution.     

Visitor management and ecological integrity: one example of an integrated management approach using Decision Analysis

In this paper we argue in favour of using a decision analysis framework for more integrated decision-making when managing protected areas. Such an approach will enable agencies to balance between the frequently conflicting goals of visitor management and ecological integrity. We present a case study from the West Coast Trail in Pacific Rim National Park Reserve, BC, Canada, in which we use a hybrid of ELECTRE and AHP to establish a ranking of several management options. We conclude by suggesting that such a more formal framework constitutes a more objective decision support tool, assists in framing relevant management questions and tradeoffs, and at the same time provides guidance for data collection.     

Practical Decision Methods for Watershed Management

Why are formal statistical methods for risk-based decision-making so seldom used in the practice of watershed management? I contend that complex formal methods, while internally consistent, are often inappropriate to real world decision-making. The primary purpose of risk analysis is to support risk management, and decision methods need to be effective not just in evaluating risk, but also in communicating risk among stakeholders and decision makers. Useful methods must be not only correct, but also readily communicable. Many formal risk-based decision methods have real obstacles to practical application in one of the following areas: (1) many important components of risk that matter to stakeholders are difficult to express in quantitative terms, and any method which turns “fuzzy” information and subjective opinion into hard numbers is prone to be regarded with suspicion; (2) methods which are not understandable and convincing to decision makers have little practical value; (3) a complex formal analysis will be seen as misguided or irrelevant if it does not represent the full spectrum of management goals. This paper compares the process of watershed management with the process of ecological risk assessment, highlighting similarities and key differences. A practical decision method which balances quantitative rigor with ability to communicate to and forge consensus among stakeholders is then outlined with reference to a successful case study.     

An indicator framework for assessing progress in land and marine planning in Colombia and Cuba

Achievement of environmental management goals and objectives in coastal areas, including how to measure success, remains a significant subject for discussion among scholars and practitioners, meanwhile four distinct management efforts potentially converge within the coastal zone: land-use planning (LUP), river basin management (RBM), marine spatial planning (MSP) and integrated coastal management (ICM). This paper examines the general lack of attention being paid to overlapping spatial boundaries within the landward and marine areas and proposes an indicator-based framework to measure the effectiveness of the individual planning instruments, as opposed to specific initiatives, in achieving management goals. The six indicators used in the framework (planning; participation; communication; integration; responsibility and balance) are based on a modified version of the Coastal Sustainability Standard methodology described by Gallagher (2010). The framework provides for four scenarios of progress in three geographical dimensions (river, municipality and marine area) to be assessed. For this study, the Caribbean coast of Colombia and Cuba were identified as the areas to test the feasibility and relevance of the indicator framework to monitor progress in the different management approaches established to achieve coastal sustainability. Several key observations and lessons from the indicator-based framework are discussed in order to analyze the overlapping of the four space-based instruments, identify areas for targeted intervention and improve their integration.     

Planning mine restoration through ecosystem services to enhance community engagement and deliver social benefits

Mining companies are expected to return land to a stable, productive, and self‐sustaining condition by rehabilitating degraded areas to also deliver social benefits, an essential dimension of sustainable land management. This research aimed to develop a framework for mine rehabilitation planning based on an integrated analysis of the social‐ecological system provided by the ecosystem services concept to facilitate community engagement and the delivery of social benefits. An Ecosystem Services Assessment for Rehabilitation framework was tested at two bauxite mines undergoing ecological restoration. The mines are operated by the same company in two countries. Key results showed that the framework can help companies, regulators, and community members alike identify whether biophysical restoration efforts translate into key human benefits. Overall the framework provides a means for enhancing community engagement to explicitly address social benefits that, with a business as usual focus on ecological goals, may not be delivered. The ecosystem services concept provides a practical approach to link ecological and social outcomes of mine restoration.     

Applying trait‐based models to achieve functional targets for theory‐driven ecological restoration

Manipulating community assemblages to achieve functional targets is a key component of restoring degraded ecosystems. The response‐and‐effect trait framework provides a conceptual foundation for translating restoration goals into functional trait targets, but a quantitative framework has been lacking for translating trait targets into assemblages of species that practitioners can actually manipulate. This study describes new trait‐based models that can be used to generate ranges of species abundances to test theories about which traits, which trait values and which species assemblages are most effective for achieving functional outcomes. These models are generalisable, flexible tools that can be widely applied across many terrestrial ecosystems. Examples illustrate how the framework generates assemblages of indigenous species to (1) achieve desired community responses by applying the theories of environmental filtering, limiting similarity and competitive hierarchies, or (2) achieve desired effects on ecosystem functions by applying the theories of mass ratios and niche complementarity. Experimental applications of this framework will advance our understanding of how to set functional trait targets to achieve the desired restoration goals. A trait‐based framework provides restoration ecology with a robust scaffold on which to apply fundamental ecological theory to maintain resilient and functioning ecosystems in a rapidly changing world.     

A Regional-Scale Ocean Health Index for Brazil

Brazil has one of the largest and fastest growing economies and one of the largest coastlines in the world, making human use and enjoyment of coastal and marine resources of fundamental importance to the country. Integrated assessments of ocean health are needed to understand the condition of a range of benefits that humans derive from marine systems and to evaluate where attention should be focused to improve the health of these systems. Here we describe the first such assessment for Brazil at both national and state levels. We applied the Ocean Health Index framework, which evaluates ten public goals for healthy oceans. Despite refinements of input data and model formulations, the national score of 60 (out of 100) was highly congruent with the previous global assessment for Brazil of 62. Variability in scores among coastal states was most striking for goals related to mariculture, protected areas, tourism, and clean waters. Extractive goals, including Food Provision, received low scores relative to habitat-related goals, such as Biodiversity. This study demonstrates the applicability of the Ocean Health Index at a regional scale, and its usefulness in highlighting existing data and knowledge gaps and identifying key policy and management recommendations. To improve Brazil''s ocean health, this study suggests that future actions should focus on: enhancing fisheries management, expanding marine protected areas, and monitoring coastal habitats.     

Opportunities for improving risk communication during the permitting process for entomophagous biological control agents: a review of current systems

Concerns about potentially irreversible non-target impacts from the importation and release of entomophagous biological control agents (BCAs) have resulted in increasingly stringent national import requirements by National Plant Protection Organizations worldwide. However, there is a divergence of opinions among regulators, researchers, environmentalists, and the general public on ways to appropriately manage associated risks. Implementation of a comprehensive and effective risk communication process might narrow the opinion gaps. Results from a comprehensive survey conducted in the United States were used to describe communication habits of stakeholders involved in biological control and identify areas that are fundamental in an efficient process. In addition, this study critically reviews risk communication practices and how phytosanitary decisions are communicated in the permitting systems for entomophagous BCAs of several countries to identify risk communication tools used in an effective risk communication framework. The following barriers to efficient risk communication were identified: absence of a formalized risk communication process, undefined risk communication goals and target audiences, lack of credibility and objectivity of information sources, inefficiency of mode of distribution of messages, insufficient public participation, and lack of transparency of decision making processes. This paper suggests the creation and/or enhancement of modes of distribution of risk messages to increase coverage, understanding, and guidance. For instance, messages should be presented in different formats such as internet, brochures, and newspapers. Surveys, public meetings, and trainings/workshops are tools that can be used to characterize stakeholders’ diversity and develop risk messages specific to the targeted audience. Implementation of a participatory decision making process will increase stakeholder involvement and trust in the risk management plan. Development of practical mechanisms, such as public hearings will increase all stakeholders’ involvement in the risk assessment process. A clear framework describing how public comments will be incorporated in the decision making process should be implemented. Finally, to ensure a streamlined risk communication process, there must be consistency in the messages disseminated by federal, state, and local agencies.     

Integrating species distribution modelling into decision-making to inform conservation actions

Species distribution models (SDMs) have been widely tagged as valuable tools in a variety of conservation assessments to address pressing conservation problems. However, these solutions could be hampered by difficulties to overcome the knowledge-action boundary between conservation and modelling practice. These difficulties have been well typified in the ecological modelling sphere, but a specific conceptual framework on how to bridge this gap is still lacking. This work reports successful examples on how to use SDMs to identify the most favourable habitats for implementing conservation management actions. We use these examples to discuss about the three main topics that deserve special attention to help enhance information flow between practitioners and modellers: the decision context, the modelling framework and the spatial products. Finally, we suggest some practical solutions to improve applications of effective conservation action on the ground. We emphasize the importance of matching modelling goals and decision targets by a close collaboration of modellers with decision makers and species experts. Moreover, we highlight the key role of clear and useful spatial products to provide relevant and timely feedback to increase understanding and promote utilisation by conservation practitioners, and to inform and involve targeted audiences.     

Probabilistic sensory recoding

A hallmark of higher brain functions is the ability to contemplate the world rather than to respond reflexively to it. To do so, the nervous system makes use of a modular architecture in which sensory representations are dissociated from areas that control actions. This flexibility however necessitates a recoding scheme that would put sensory information to use in the control of behavior. Sensory recoding faces two important challenges. First, recoding must take into account the inherent variability of sensory responses. Second, it must be flexible enough to satisfy the requirements of different perceptual goals. Recent progress in theory, psychophysics, and neurophysiology indicate that cortical circuitry might meet these challenges by evaluating sensory signals probabilistically.     

Nematology—Status and Prospects: Practical Implementation of Quantitative Approaches to Nematology

The main components of the decision process in nematode pest management are the value of the predicted damage and the cost of the management alternative. The relationships involved are affected by such environmental parameters as soil texture and physiographic region. There is a general intuitive understanding of the nature of the relationships and of the effects of the environmental parameters. Some nematode damage functions have been developed through quantitative research. A conceptual framework is developed herein which promotes rational use of available experimental results, supplemented by intuitive understanding of nematodes and crops, in arriving at a pest management decision. Gaps in available data point the need for additional research within the framework. The approach allows and encourages immediate implementation. Interactive computer programs are seen as a potential vehicle for weighting the variables involved in the decision and for storing, manipulating, and delivering the necessary data funcand information.     

城郊生态系统土壤安全:问题与挑战

土壤作为地球表层系统物质和能量迁移转化的关键节点,其生态功能受到城市化快速发展的严重影响,土壤安全面临严峻的挑战。城郊生态系统受到城市和乡村的双重影响,具有复杂的景观结构和剧烈的动态变化,土壤安全问题更为突出和复杂。基于文献计量学方法,对1990—2017年发表的相关文献进行了统计,梳理和总结了城郊生态系统土壤安全研究的趋势和热点问题,对城郊生态系统中土壤安全面临的问题,及其特殊性、复杂性进行了重点论述,明确了当前快速城市化发展过程中城郊土壤安全研究面临的问题和挑战。建议今后的城郊生态系统土壤安全研究应加强区域尺度上的综合和不同城市发展模式下地区之间的比较,明确城市扩张对城郊生态系统土壤安全的影响机制;建立和完善基于"土壤安全"的城郊生态系统服务评价框架,深入研究城郊生态系统格局-过程-服务之间的关系;明确解析城郊土壤主要污染物来源及其复合污染状况,并结合区域特征,因地制宜开展科学的生态规划,优化城郊景观格局,提升城郊地区土壤安全与生态系统服务功能;明确土壤安全在城郊生态系统可持续发展目标中的重要性,建立科学合理的管理政策。     

Process evaluation of appreciative inquiry to translate pain management evidence into pediatric nursing practice

Background

Current healthcare systems have extended the evidence-based medicine (EBM) approach to health policy and delivery decisions, such as access-to-care, healthcare funding and health program continuance, through attempts to integrate valid and reliable evidence into the decision making process. These policy decisions have major impacts on society and have high personal and financial costs associated with those decisions. Decision models such as these function under a shared assumption of rational choice and utility maximization in the decision-making process.

Discussion

We contend that health policy decision makers are generally unable to attain the basic goals of evidence-based decision making (EBDM) and evidence-based policy making (EBPM) because humans make decisions with their naturally limited, faulty, and biased decision-making processes. A cognitive information processing framework is presented to support this argument, and subtle cognitive processing mechanisms are introduced to support the focal thesis: health policy makers' decisions are influenced by the subjective manner in which they individually process decision-relevant information rather than on the objective merits of the evidence alone. As such, subsequent health policy decisions do not necessarily achieve the goals of evidence-based policy making, such as maximizing health outcomes for society based on valid and reliable research evidence.

Summary

In this era of increasing adoption of evidence-based healthcare models, the rational choice, utility maximizing assumptions in EBDM and EBPM, must be critically evaluated to ensure effective and high-quality health policy decisions. The cognitive information processing framework presented here will aid health policy decision makers by identifying how their decisions might be subtly influenced by non-rational factors. In this paper, we identify some of the biases and potential intervention points and provide some initial suggestions about how the EBDM/EBPM process can be improved.     

COMPETENCE,PRACTICAL RATIONALITY AND WHAT A PATIENT VALUES

According to the principle of patient autonomy, patients have the right to be self‐determining in decisions about their own medical care, which includes the right to refuse treatment. However, a treatment refusal may legitimately be overridden in cases where the decision is judged to be incompetent. It has recently been proposed that in assessments of competence, attention should be paid to the evaluative judgments that guide patients' treatment decisions. In this paper I examine this claim in light of theories of practical rationality, focusing on the difficult case of an anorexic person who is judged to be competent and refuses treatment, thereby putting themselves at risk of serious harm. I argue that the standard criteria for competence assess whether a treatment decision satisfies the goals of practical decision‐making, and that this same criterion can be applied to a patient's decision‐guiding commitments. As a consequence I propose that a particular understanding of practical rationality offers a theoretical framework for justifying involuntary treatment in the anorexia case.     

A spatial multicriteria decision analysis for selecting priority sites for plant species restoration: a case study from the Chilean biodiversity hotspot

Developing conservation strategies to restore populations of threatened species has been signaled as an important task by the Convention on Biological Diversity 2011–2020 targets. Species are being threatened not only by habitat loss and fragmentation but increasingly by climate change. As resources for conservation are often limited, and restoration is among the most expensive conservation strategies, developing approaches that help in the prioritization of areas for restoration efforts is a critical task. In this study, we propose a spatial multicriteria decision analysis (SMCDA) framework for identifying potential areas for plant species restoration initiatives that can explicitly take into account future climatic change. As a way to show how the framework can be applied, we took advantage of freely available niche modeling software and geospatial information to identify regional‐scale priority areas for restoration of two threatened endemic tree species (i.e. Bielschmiedia miersii and Pouteria splendens) of the “Chilean Winter Rainfall‐Valdivian Forest” Hotspot. The SMCDA framework allowed us not only to identify priority areas for species restoration but also to analyze how different environmental conditions and land‐use types may affect the selection of areas for species restoration. Our analysis suggests that the inclusion of climate change is a key factor to assess the potential areas for species restoration because species may respond differentially to future climatic conditions. This framework is conceived to be used as a complementary approach to available landscape‐scale spatial conservation planning tools.     

Risk-Cost Trade Off Considerations for Contaminated Sediment Disposal

Delays in dredging and inability to dredge the nation's harbors, due to the presence of contaminated sediments and the lack of environmentally acceptable disposal sites are interfering with shipping activities and hampering trade growth. The United States Government is committed to provide continuing support to the port industry's goals for enhancing economic growth while protecting, conserving and restoring natural resources within coastal aquatic lands. The government's commitment has resulted in the articulation of a national dredging policy in the Action Plan for Improvement of the Dredging Process in the United States. This national challenge calls for a systematic and consistent decision making approach to dredging and disposal including contaminated sediment management. In building an effective decision mak ing framework for costs, risk reduction and potential beneficial uses of the disposal material must be considered in identifying and evaluating environmentally acceptable and cost-effective disposal alternatives. A conceptual framework for applying a risk-cost trade off approach in making decisions regarding contaminated sediment disposal is presented and applied to a hypothetical disposal scenario involving three alternatives: deepwater confined disposal, nearshore fill or capping and, upland disposal. The approach entails the performance of sequential evaluations consisting of risk analysis, estimation of costs, integration of the results into a computational framework for trade-off analysis, and the application of decision analytical tools to build consensus among stakeholders and the general public in selecting a preferred alternative.     

On the Application of Fuzzy Decision Theory in Chemotherapy

1IntreductionTheliteratUreonmulti-Criteriondecisionmaking(MCDM)problemshas~tremendouslyintherecentpast.TwomajorareashaveevolvedwhiChbothconcentrateondecisionmakingwithseveralcriteria:multiobjectivedecisionmaking(MODM)andmulti-attributedecisionmaking(MADM).TheformerconcentratesoncontinuousdecisionspaceandthelatterfocusesonproblemswithdiscreteSPace.FuzzysettheoryhascontributedtoMODMproblemsaswellastheMADMProblems.ThegeneralMODMproblemcanbedeft.edLllasfollows:Twostagescangenerallybe…     

Environmental impact assessment: the growing importance of science in government decision making

The broad acceptance of the conclusions and recommendations contained in the Brundtland Report with its emphasis on environmentally sustainable development is a good indication that this concept is gaining world-wide recognition. Science and the ensuing technology must be credited for creating and sustaining our modern society and we must now apply our expertise to minimize the adverse impacts of industrial growth and preserve our environment.Real progress towards the reconciliation of economic and environmental goals will require effective incorporation of environmental impact assessment (EIA) into the planning process and this paper describes the steps taken to improve the concept and practice of EIA in Canada. Public trust and participation in the process are key ingredients for its success as well as good science and meaningful dialogue between the scientists, the public and the decision makers. The availability of standard and reliable bioassessment techniques, which is the theme of this conference, should be helpful in strengthening the scientific basis for biophysical aspects of EIA.