Factors in the incidence of childlessness in Canada: an analysis of census data

Due to the difficulties involved in attempting to determine the relative proportion of involuntary childlessness and of voluntary childlessness in a given population, many investigators insist that the problem can only be examined in small-scale studies using intensive psychological interviewing techniques. A method for assessing the causes of childlessness in a population using census materials is described. If a distinction is made between psychological and physiological causes, instead of between intentional and unintentional causes, it is possible to assess the relative importance of these causes using large-scale investigation techniques. Physiological causes include all physiological conditions which produce sterility. Psychological causes include both psychosomatic infertility and the voluntary decision not to have children. The method involves using the minimum rate of childlessness in a population group known to place a high value on fertility as an estimate of the rate of physiological childlessness in the population. This estimate is then subtracted from the childlessness rate observed in other population groups in the same society in order to determine the degree of psychological childlessness in these other population groups. This method was used to assess the causes of childlessness in Canada. Census materials were used to determine the minimum rate of childlessness among rural women in Quebec. Since this group is primarily Catholic and places a high value on children, its childlessness rate provides an estimate of the proportion of sterile couples in the population. This rate was then subtracted from the childlessness rates for urban Canadian women, and the remainder provided an estimate of psychological childlessness among urban women. Age of marriage was controlled for since rural women married at younger ages. Study findings were 1) the proportion of childlessness among urban women declined over the years as 15.2% of the women over 45 years old were childless while only 10.8% of the women, aged 30-44, were childless; 2) the proportion of physiological childlessness declined from 6.6% among women over 45 years old to 4.6% among women, aged 30-44; and 3) approximately 50% of the cases of childlessness among urban women were due to psychological factors. These findings do not support the contentions of some investigators that 10% of the population is sterile and that psychological childlessness is rare. Study findings were presented in tabular form.     

Modernization and childlessness among the governorates of the Arab Republic of Egypt, 1976

This paper examines the degree to which childlessness is influenced by levels of modernization among the governorates of the Arab Republic of Egypt. The data have been derived mainly from the 1976 Population and Housing Census of the Arab Republic of Egypt. The childlessness rates used are based on census data on number of children born to married women. In 1976, the higher the levels of modernization, the lower the rates of childlessness among women aged 30 and over, and the higher the rates of childlessness among women aged 20-30. The lower rates are found in and around Cairo, and some of the governorates with higher rates are in Upper Egypt. Of the 25 governorates, Suez has the lowest childlessness rate. To some degree, the patterns of childlessness may be affected by changing patterns in age-specific 1st marriage rates. The childlessness rates for the younger women in the Egyptian governorates are associated with some of the modernization variables. The findings suggest that childlessness among women aged 30 and older is mostly involuntary, but that for younger women it is partly voluntary. Increases in modernization among the Egyptian governorates should, therfore, result in net increases in rates of childlessness and net decreases in fertility. There are at least 3 statistically independent sources of variation in modernization which characterize the governorates of Egypt: factors that reflect structural development, female status, and health personnel.     

Graying of the hair and mortality

Abstract

Since the early 1970s, considerable attention has been given to U. S. trends in childlessness. Studies have shown that childlessness rates have been increasing in recent years; many believe that the bulk of the increase has been due to increases in voluntary childlessness. However, there have been few methodological and empirical analyses of trends in voluntary and involuntary childlessness. This paper has two objectives: to develop two procedures for measuring voluntary and involuntary childlessness with fertility survey data; and to apply empirically these approaches to five fertility surveys conducted between 1955 and 1973.     

Becoming voluntarily childless: An exploratory study in a Scottish city

Abstract

This paper looks at motives that inform the decision to remain voluntarily childless. It is assumed that voluntary childlessness is not a pathological condition nor is it determined by specific social situations. Situations provide the context within which motives emerge, in the case of voluntary childlessness providing individuals or couples with the opportunity to consider unconventional interpretations of family life that may eventually lead to its rejection. Individuals who become childless prior to finding a “partner” tend to come from families which deviated from the nuclear ideal and to reject parenthood. Those whose decision emerges after a “partnership” has been formed tend to have created alternative life styles and wish to protect the advantages of living without children. It is tentatively concluded that the proportion of couples remaining childless will increase.     

Development and childlessness in the states and territories of Brazil

Abstract

This article provides an analytical account of the variability in and correlates of Brazil's childlessness rates. Following from the socioeconomic development model, which suggests that involuntary childlessness predominates among developing countries and voluntary childlessness among developed countries, this paper examines the extent to which levels of development are related to age‐specific rates of childlessness in the states and territories of Brazil. We find both variation within the age‐specific childlessness rates and important associations between measures of economic development in 1970 and the rates of childlessness in 1980. Moreover, childlessness in Brazil tends to be more voluntary than involuntary, particularly among the younger women in the more modernized subregions of the country.     

Children in an ageing society

This paper explores the implications of demographic aging for children and pediatric practice in the Western society. It focuses on the social class differences in childbearing patterns, specific issues related to disability, and distribution of resources between age groups. Women in the Western world are now having children at an older age than at any time in the past 50 years. Voluntary childlessness or deliberate delay in childbearing is common among highly educated women. This changing pattern in childbearing may increase and polarize health and wealth inequalities. With advancements in neonatal and pediatric care which prolong life expectancy and survival of disabled children, it is projected that there will be an increasing number of very old parents caring for severely disabled offspring. Meanwhile, there are also many children who are carrying considerable burdens of caring for their disabled parents. The community burden of disability will continue to rise. The needs of the elderly population may drain resources from child health services. Despite this demographic pattern, care for the children is still important. Health care authorities must not become contented with the existing pediatric care services just because demographic changes require that the nation should invest more in care of the older population.     

Infertile or childless by choice? A multipractice survey of women aged 35 and 50.

Eleven general practitioners examined the medical records of all women on their lists born in 1950 (617 patients) and 1935 (533 patients) to determine the prevalence of childlessness and specialist consultations about infertility. Eighty eight (14.3%) of the women born in 1950 and 41 (7.7%) of those born in 1935 were childless. Sixty eight women born in 1950 (11.0%) and 17 born in 1935 (3.2%) were considered childless by choice. Involuntary childlessness was found in 20 (3.3%) of the women born in 1950 and 24 (4.5%) born in 1935. Forty two (6.8%) of the women born in 1950 had consulted a specialist about infertility as compared with 19 (3.6%) born in 1935. This study found a significant increase in voluntary childlessness among the younger women; there was no evidence of a change in the prevalence of involuntary childlessness despite the increasing demand for specialist referral, which appeared to be made by women who were parous or destined to become so.     

Correlates of voluntary childlessness in a select population

In order to determine a sociological profile of voluntarily childless couples, 72 couples who had applied to the Association for Voluntary Sterilization for help in obtaining surgical sterilizations were surveyed. No pretense is made that this sample is representative of all childless couples, but this study provides the first step of such research. The average couple in this group was living in a large metropolitan area, about 30 years old, and had been married about 5 years. They tended to be of high socioeconomic status and claimed no religious affiliation. Most had been contracepting for several years, usually with the pill, and were not likely to have had a miscarriage or abortion. Population concerns and health considerations were found to be the 2 most mentioned reasons for these couples' desired childlessness. Other reasons included career commitments, lifestyle, or economic desires. Less common motivations for childlessness included dislike of children and fear of pregnancy. Before significant research on voluntary childlessness can be conducted, some accurate means of selecting a representative sample must be developed.     

Trends in childlessness in the United States, 1910–1975

Abstract

This paper examines trends in childlessness for ever‐married women in the United States. Data assembled from assorted census materials permit cohort and period investigations for a number of time periods, from 1910 to 1975, for various color and ethnic groups. Whether examined at the period or cohort level, the incidences in percentage rates of childlessness have varied irregularly over time. We focus particularly on the younger cohorts of white women (those beginning fecundity after 1965); they show higher rates of childlessness at each age than any of the older cohorts at similar ages in the reproductive cycle. We suggest that a major portion of the increasing rates of these younger cohorts may be attributed to increases in voluntary childlessness, which in turn may be linked to broader changes in the fabric of society regarding fertility control, contraceptive technology, female work preferences and patterns, and sexual and family norms.     

The association between mild geriatric depression and reproductive history--a Darwinian approach

The well described trend of population ageing results in a dramatic increase in the number of elderly, reporting symptoms of depression, the most common mood disorder today. Various intrinsic and extrinsic factors are discussed to be responsible for this increase of mood disorders. In the present study the association patterns between mild geriatric depression and the individual reproductive history are analyzed. 264 subjects, 167 females and 97 males, ageing between 60 and 95 years (mean 72.3, SD 8.1 yrs) were enrolled in the present study. The prevalence of depression was tested by mean of the geriatric depression scale (GDS), additionally reproductive history was documented. It turned out, that with increasing number of offspring the depression score decreased. Childless women exhibited the highest prevalence of mild depression and the highest mean depression score. These association patterns between reproductive history and depressive disorders during old age were discussed by means of Darwinian psychiatry. A low number of offspring or childlessness and a lack of social networks for support are new in the evolutionary history of Homo sapiens. Mild geriatric depression may be interpreted as a result of a mismatch or dysregulation because the recent social environment of elderly is completely different from that in which Homo sapiens evolved. The occurrence of geriatric depression may be an adaptation to this new situation.     

The real life of aged persons living alone in a depopulated area--in case of village a in Nagano Prefecture

Japan adopted a high economic growth policy and developed rapid industrialization since the 1960s. Consequently, Japanese have gotten various positive influences and negative influences. In this paper, we describe various positive influences and also we describe the "real life" of aged persons living alone in depopulated areas as one of the typical negative influences. For the purpose of investigating the actual lives of aged person living alone in depopulated areas, we carried out repeated interviews, research and direct observations of their work and lives in Village A. Village A is located in a mountain area 20 kilometers from Nagano City. The total population of the village was 3,294 in 1993, while it was 6,312 in 1960. The ratio is increasing rapidly year by year. In the village, the number of aged persons over 65 years old living alone, without any family, was 116 in 1994. The highest age is 94 years old. The number is increasing year by year. Through our study, it is made clear that aged persons over 65 years old living alone in the village have to manage everything in their daily lives by themselves to maintain their own safety, while accepting the influences of economic and industrial developments.     

Family background, schooling and childlessness in Australia

Using data from Wave 1 of the Household Income and Labour Dynamics in Australia (HILDA) survey, this paper analyses the extent to which childlessness among Australian women aged 40-54 years varies according to the size and type of family in which they were brought up, and the level and type of schooling they had. Multilevel logistic analysis shows that having been educated in a non-government school, having stayed at school to year 12, having a small number of siblings, at age 14 having a father who was either dead or absent, at age 14 having a father who was employed in a professional occupation, or being a migrant from North or West Europe, North America, East Asia or South-East Asia, all are significantly associated with higher rates of childlessness among women in the 40-54 years age range. The effects of these early lifecourse variables on marital and socioeconomic status in later life, and hence on childlessness, are also considered. The implications of the findings for fertility trends and for Australia's public debate are discussed.     

Voluntary Childlessness Among American Men and Women in the Late 1980's

Abstract

Most studies of childlessness in the United States have relied on unrepresentative, opportunistic samples collected in a variety of ways. Thus, the relationship of various correlates to childlessness is not well known. Some studies have focused on demographic variables, but have not examined attitudinal factors associated with childlessness—something the opportunistic samples have been able to do. In this paper we examine both attitudinal and demographic factors associated with childlessness in the United States. The data used in this paper are from the National Survey of Families and Households collected in 1987 and 1988. The data set includes both demographic data, perceived advantages and disadvantages of having children, and attitudinal data about related social issues. Overall, the rate of voluntary childlessness was not high. Only 3.5 per cent of the men and 2.8 per cent of the women reported that they were childless and did not expect to have children. Only one category of people (unmarried men and women over the age of 35) had rates that exceeded ten per cent. A combined variable of age and marital status was the best predictor of childlessness. A scale of reasons or justifications for having children was the next best predictor. In addition, attendance at religious services, number of hours the respondents desired to work and education (for women only) were related to childlessness. Those who scored highly on measures of support for traditional families and support of extended families also tended to have lower rates of childlessness. Occupational status, religious denomination, and race, on the other hand, were not significantly related to childlessness. Measures of gender equality, religious fundamentalism, and support for mothers working were also not related to childlessness.     

Artificial environments and an aging population: designing for age-related functional losses

Over the past century there has been a large and continuing increase in the frequency of persons aged over 65 years; particularly those aged over 100 years. During the 21st century the number of persons over 100 years will continue to increase. This will occur at such a rapid rate that the 21st century may one day be called the century of centenarians. Frailty and disability secondary to senescence, disease, and trauma have accompanied old age (often defined as age 65 and over) as far back as recorded history. However, during the 20th century, age, frailty, disability, and chronic degenerative diseases have been decoupled to some extant in the most long-lived human populations. Until recently, there was little need to design artificial environments for the unique needs of the elderly due to their low representation in most national populations. Today that need is increasing in concert with the number of persons aged 65 and older.The purpose of this review is to suggest areas wherein physiological anthropologists may have an opportunity to contribute to design trends for this rapidly increasing aging population. Major considerations for design of environments for the elderly are based upon altering the environment to accommodate their declining visual, auditory, and kinesthetic senses, thereby enhancing their declining faculties and improving their autonomy, independence, and self perceptions of well-being. To date most design considerations have been directed toward improving environments for those suffering from Alzheimer's disease or residing within assisted living facilities. Many such design improvements also may be effective in improving life satisfaction and functional abilities of the non-institutionalized elderly.     

Voluntary childlessness among American men and women in the late 1980's.

Most studies of childlessness in the United States have relied on unrepresentative, opportunistic samples collected in a variety of ways. Thus, the relationship of various correlates to childlessness is not well known. Some studies have focused on demographic variables, but have not examined attitudinal factors associated with childlessness--something the opportunistic samples have been able to do. In this paper we examine both attitudinal and demographic factors associated with childlessness in the United States. The data used in this paper are from the National Survey of Families and Households collected in 1987 and 1988. The data set includes both demographic data, perceived advantages and disadvantages of having children, and attitudinal data about related social issues. Overall, the rate of voluntary childlessness was not high. Only 3.5 per cent of the men and 2.8 per cent of the women reported that they were childless and did not expect to have children. Only one category of people (unmarried men and women over the age of 35) had rates that exceeded ten per cent. A combined variable of age and marital status was the best predictor of childlessness. A scale of reasons or justifications for having children was the next best predictor. In addition, attendance at religious services, number of hours the respondents desired to work and education (for women only) were related to childlessness. Those who scored highly on measures of support for traditional families and support of extended families also tended to have lower rates of childlessness. Occupational status, religious denomination, and race, on the other hand, were not significantly related to childlessness. Measures of gender equality, religious fundamentalism, and support for mothers working were also not related to childlessness.     

秦岭北坡栓皮栎种群动态的研究

对秦岭北坡栓皮栎种群动态进行了系统研究,分析了种群的年龄结构和分布格局。编制了静态生命表。绘制了存活曲线．结果表明,秦岭北坡栓皮栎种群年龄结构属于进展型,幼龄个体多。中老龄个体少;种群在I、Ⅱ龄级时死亡率最高．随着年龄增加,死亡率逐渐降低;到Ⅶ、Ⅷ龄级。由于生理衰老。死亡率回升;栓皮栎种群存活曲线属于DeeveyⅢ型;种群分布格局总体上的呈聚集型。随年龄增加,种群聚集强度降低。在高海拔地区,种群趋向随机分布．海拔800～1100m是栓皮栎种群较为适宜的生境．对于低海拔地区栓皮栎林要加强保护,减少人为干扰;中海拔地区应加强抚育管理和适时间伐,高海拔地区应加强目的树种的抚育．     

Socioeconomic status, marital status and childlessness in men and women: an analysis of census data from six countries

This study compares the effects of two distinct forms of human capital - income and education - on marital status and childlessness separately by sex in six different countries. Nearly 10 million individual records on individuals aged 16 to 50 were used from censuses from Brazil, Mexico, Panama, South Africa, USA and Venezuela dating from 2000 or later, to analyse the relationship between education, income and marital status and childlessness in men and women. Regarding income, the findings for both outcome variables are strongly consistent across all six countries. Highest-income males and lower-income females have the highest proportion of ever-married and the lowest proportion of childlessness (using a proxy for childlessness: own children in the household or not). There is no corresponding consistency of findings as regards education either between the sexes or among the countries. To conclude, a lower percentage of low-income men are selected by females, because for women male status and resources provided by men are important criteria in mate selection. Therefore a higher proportion of low-income men remain unmarried and childless. Thus selection seems to play a role in modern societies.     

How many, how old, how soon?

This article highlights the population projections for the UK to 2066 and their health implications. The changes in the demographic age structure of human populations have dual implications. Although they represent accomplishments in social and health development considering the fact that more individuals are able to live until old age, these changes also bring new demands that affect all aspects of society, including employment, taxation, pension, education, and health. Age specific population projections presented were obtained from the Office for National Statistics. It is projected that the total number of people aged 60 years and older will rise from 12 million in 2001 to 18.6 million in 2031 and the number of individuals suffering with chronic diseases and disabilities will see a three-fold increase. Although these projections rely on assumptions and are subject to some changes, it is made clear that the proportion of the population aged 65 and above will continue to increase substantially over the next decades. These population trends will have a large impact on the health and health care needs of the population. Thus, there is a need to develop and plan institutions and policies that address the demands of the aging population. Understanding and identification of the causes and prevention of conditions that could result to serious disabilities must be a high priority.     

Pathways into childlessness: evidence of gendered life course dynamics

Using data from the first wave of the Netherlands Kinship Panel Study (NKPS) for 2867 women and 2195 men aged 40 to 79, this study examines to what extent educational, employment and marital pathways shape the likelihood of remaining childless, and whether these pathways are gendered. The findings indicate that women and men have distinctive pathways into childlessness. Educational attainment increases the likelihood of remaining childless among women only. A stable career increases the likelihood of remaining childless among women, but it increases the likelihood of entering fatherhood. Years without a partner is positively associated with childlessness among both women and men. Not having had a partnership and having had multiple partnerships are strong determinants of childlessness, especially among men.     

濒危植物海南龙血树的种群结构与动态

了解种群的生存现状与动态趋势对濒危植物的保护至关重要。为了更好地保护濒危海南龙血树种群,对海南岛不同生境的11个海南龙血树(Dracaena cambodiana)种群进行了调查;并利用个体基径数据建立各种群的年龄结构和静态生命表,得到种群年龄结构动态指数,绘制种群存活曲线和生存函数曲线,从而获得海南龙血树的种群结构与动态。结果表明:海南龙血树种群年龄结构与种群所处的生境关系密切,海边的NS和YL种群结构为衰退型,LN和CH居群为稳定型,而非海边种群为增长型,没有老龄个体;11个种群中,EXL种群显示出最高的增长趋势和最好的种群稳定性,NS和YL种群稳定性最差,种群抗干扰能力极低;11个种群的存活曲线均属于Deevey-Ⅰ型,但生存函数分析显示海南龙血树种群生活史早期和晚期脆弱,中期稳定,这表明海南龙血树种群所处的生境更适合成年个体生存,现有的生境对幼龄个体的环境筛作用较强。海南龙血树属于退偿物种,针对其种群的生存现状,应采取多种方法相结合的方式进行保护与复壮。