Sperm-Specific Glyceraldehyde-3-Phosphate Dehydrogenase–An Evolutionary Acquisition of Mammals

This review is focused on the mammalian sperm-specific glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDS). GAPDS plays the major role in the production of energy required for sperm cell movement and does not perform non-glycolytic functions that are characteristic of the somatic isoenzyme of glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase. The GAPDS sequence is composed of 408 amino acid residues and includes an additional N-terminal region of 72 a.a. that binds the protein to the sperm tail cytoskeleton. GAPDS is present only in the sperm cells of mammals and lizards, possibly providing them with certain evolutionary advantages in reproduction. In this review, studies concerning the problems of GAPDS isolation, its catalytic properties, and its structural features are described in detail. GAPDS is much more stable compared to the somatic isoenzyme, perhaps due to the necessity of maintaining the enzyme function in the absence of protein expression. The site-directed mutagenesis approach revealed the two GAPDS-specific proline residues, as well as three salt bridges, which seem to be the basis of the increased stability of this protein. As distinct from the somatic isoenzyme, GAPDS exhibits positive cooperativity in binding of the coenzyme NAD⁺. The key role in transduction of structural changes induced by NAD⁺ is played by the salt bridge D311–H124. Disruption of this salt bridge cancels GAPDS cooperativity and twofold increases its enzymatic activity instead. The expression of GAPDS was detected in some melanoma cells as well. Its role in the development of certain pathologies, such as cancer and neurodegenerative diseases, is discussed.     

Antitrypanosomal alkaloids from Polyalthia suaveolens (Annonaceae): Their effects on three selected glycolytic enzymes of Trypanosoma brucei

In continuation of our study on medicinal plants of Cameroon, stem barks of Polyalthia suaveolens were phytochemically studied. This investigation yielded a new indolosesquiterpene alkaloid, named polysin (1) and four hitherto known alkaloids (2–5). Polysin (1) appeared as a competitive reversible inhibitor (K_i = 10 μM) of phosphofructo kinase (PFK) of Trypanosoma brucei with respect to fructose-6-phosphate (K_i/K_M = 0.05) and could be used in the design of new trypanocidal drugs. The other isolated compounds (2–5) also exhibited interesting inhibitory effects on selected glycolytic enzymes (PFK, glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase and aldolase).     

In-depth exploration of Hevea brasiliensis latex proteome and “hidden allergens” via combinatorial peptide ligand libraries

The proteome of Hevea brasiliensis latex has been explored in depth via combinatorial peptide ligand libraries. A total of 300 unique gene products have been identified in this latex, whose proteome has been largely unknown up to the present. In search for unknown allergens, control latex and eluates from the ligand libraries have been fractionated by two-dimensional mapping, blotted and confronted with sera of 18 patients. In addition to the already known and named Hevea major allergens, we have unambiguously detected several others like, for instance: heat shock protein (81 kDa), proteasome subunit (30 kDa), protease inhibitor (8 kDa), hevamine A (43 kDa) and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (37 kDa). Gene Ontology analysis of analyzed fractions has shown that major functions are substantially unchanged after sample treatment, while novel biological functions appeared that were undetectable in the crude sample.     

Heterologous expression and characterisation of a biosynthetic thiolase from Clostridium butyricum DSM 10702

Biosynthetic thiolases (EC 2.3.1.9) are key enzymes in the branched catabolism of diverse clostridia as their activity and regulation influence the production of organic acids and solvents. In Clostridium butyricum, they are also involved in the production of hydrogen as a sustainable and environmentally benign energy source. In this study, the gene coding for thiolase from C. butyricum DSM 10702 was cloned by genome walking. It was found to consist of 1179 bp coding for a protein with 393 amino acids and a deduced molecular weight of 41.4 kDa. The enzyme was fused to an N-terminal his-tag, expressed in Escherichia coli, purified to near homogeneity and characterised for biochemical and kinetic properties. Gel filtration chromatography revealed that the catalytically active enzyme consists of a homotetramer. The enzyme showed a K_M of ～32 μM towards acetoacetyl-CoA and of ～21 μM towards CoASH at 30 °C and pH 8.0. Claisen condensation of acetyl-CoA by thiolase was analysed in a coupled enzyme assay, where β-hydroxybutyryl-CoA dehydrogenase was applied catalysing the subsequent NADH-dependant reduction of the formed condensation product acetoacetyl-CoA. For this purpose the latter enzyme was cloned from C. butyricum DSM 10702 and recombinantly expressed in E. coli. The K_M of thiolase towards acetyl-CoA was ～674 μM at 30 °C and pH 7.5. Acetyl-CoA condensation was inhibited even at micromolar concentrations of CoASH indicating that CoASH has an important regulatory function in vivo.     

Enantioselective synthesis of (S)-phenylephrine by recombinant Escherichia coli cells expressing the short-chain dehydrogenase/reductase gene from Serratia quinivorans BCRC 14811

BackgroundAn amino alcohol dehydrogenase gene (RE_AADH) from Rhodococcus erythropolis BCRC 10909 has been used for the conversion of 1-(3-hydroxyphenyl)-2-(methylamino) ethanone (HPMAE) to (S)-phenylephrine [(S)-PE]. However RE_AADH uses NADPH as cofactor, and only limited production of (S)-PE from HPMAE is achieved.MethodsA short-chain dehydrogenase/reductase gene (SQ_SDR) from Serratia quinivorans BCRC 14811 was expressed in Escherichia coli BL21 (DE3) for the conversion of HPMAE to (S)-PE.ResultsThe SQ_SDR enzyme was capable of converting HPMAE to (S)-PE in the presence of NADH and NADPH, with specific activities of 26.5 ± 2.3 U/mg protein and 0.24 ± 0.01 U/mg protein, respectively, at 30 °C and at a pH of 7.0. The E. coli BL21 (DE3), expressing NADH-preferring SQ_SDR, converted HPMAE to (S)-PE with more than 99% enantiomeric excess, a conversion yield of 86.6% and a productivity of 20.2 mmol/l h, which was much higher than our previous report using E. coli NovaBlue expressing NADPH-dependent RE_AADH as the biocatalyst.ConclusionThe SQ_SDR enzyme with its high catalytic activity and strong preference for NADH as a cofactor provided a significant advantage in bioreduction.     

Apoptotic effects and glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase responses in liver and gill tissues of rainbow trout treated with chlorpyrifos

We investigated apoptotic effects and changes in glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) enzyme activity in liver and gill tissues of fish exposed to chlorpyrifos. Three different chlorpyrifos doses (2.25, 4.5 and 6.75 μg/L) were administrated to rainbow trout at different time intervals (24, 48, 72 and 96 h). Acute exposure to chlorpyrifos showed time dependent decrease in G6PD enzyme activity at all concentrations (p < 0.05). Immunohistochemical results showed that chlorpyrifos caused mucous cell loss in gill tissue and apoptosis via caspase-3 activation in fish. The present study suggested that chlorpyrifos inhibits G6PD enzyme and causes mucous cell loss in gill and apoptosis in gill and liver tissues.     

Bacterial cell-surface displaying of thermo-tolerant glutamate dehydrogenase and its application in l-glutamate assay

In this paper, glutamate dehydrogenase (Gldh) is reported to efficiently display on Escherichia coli cell surface by using N-terminal region of ice the nucleation protein as an anchoring motif. The presence of Gldh was confirmed by SDS-PAGE and enzyme activity assay. Gldh was detected mainly in the outer membrane fraction, suggesting that the Gldh was displayed on the bacterial cell surface. The optimal temperature and pH for the bacteria cell-surface displayed Gldh (bacteria-Gldh) were 70 °C and 9.0, respectively. Additionally, the fusion protein retained almost 100% of its initial enzymatic activity after 1 month incubation at 4 °C. Transition metal ions could inhibit the enzyme activity to different extents, while common anions had little adverse effect on enzyme activity. Importantly, the displayed Gldh is most specific to l-glutamate reported so far. The bacterial Gldh was enabled to catalyze oxidization of l-glutamate with NADP⁺ as cofactor, and the resultant NADPH can be detected spectrometrically at 340 nm. The bacterial-Gldh based l-glutamate assay was established, where the absorbance at 340 nm increased linearly with the increasing l-glutamate concentration within the range of 10 − 400 μM. Further, the proposed approach was successfully applied to measure l-glutamate in real samples.     

Introduction of a bacterial acetyl-CoA synthesis pathway improves lactic acid production in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Acid-tolerant Saccharomyces cerevisiae was engineered to produce lactic acid by expressing heterologous lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) genes, while attenuating several key pathway genes, including glycerol-3-phosphate dehydrogenase1 (GPD1) and cytochrome-c oxidoreductase2 (CYB2). In order to increase the yield of lactic acid further, the ethanol production pathway was attenuated by disrupting the pyruvate decarboxylase1 (PDC1) and alcohol dehydrogenase1 (ADH1) genes. Despite an increase in lactic acid yield, severe reduction of the growth rate and glucose consumption rate owing to the absence of ADH1 caused a considerable decrease in the overall productivity. In Δadh1 cells, the levels of acetyl-CoA, a key precursor for biologically applicable components, could be insufficient for normal cell growth. To increase the cellular supply of acetyl-CoA, we introduced bacterial acetylating acetaldehyde dehydrogenase (A-ALD) enzyme (EC 1.2.1.10) genes into the lactic acid-producing S. cerevisiae. Escherichia coli-derived A-ALD genes, mhpF and eutE, were expressed and effectively complemented the attenuated acetaldehyde dehydrogenase (ALD)/acetyl-CoA synthetase (ACS) pathway in the yeast. The engineered strain, possessing a heterologous acetyl-CoA synthetic pathway, showed an increased glucose consumption rate and higher productivity of lactic acid fermentation. The production of lactic acid was reached at 142 g/L with production yield of 0.89 g/g and productivity of 3.55 g L⁻¹ h⁻¹ under fed-batch fermentation in bioreactor. This study demonstrates a novel approach that improves productivity of lactic acid by metabolic engineering of the acetyl-CoA biosynthetic pathway in yeast.     

C-Terminal proline-rich sequence broadens the optimal temperature and pH ranges of recombinant xylanase from Geobacillus thermodenitrificans C5

Efficient utilization of hemicellulose entails high catalytic capacity containing xylanases. In this study, proline rich sequence was fused together with a C-terminal of xylanase gene from Geobacillus thermodenitrificans C5 and designated as GthC5ProXyl. Both GthC5Xyl and GthC5ProXyl were expressed in Escherichia coli BL21 host in order to determine effect of this modification. The C-terminal oligopeptide had noteworthy effects and instantaneously extended the optimal temperature and pH ranges and progressed the specific activity of GthC5Xyl. Compared with GthC5Xyl, GthC5ProXyl revealed improved specific activity, a higher temperature (70 °C versus 60 °C) and pH (8 versus 6) optimum, with broad ranges of temperature and pH (60–80 °C and 6.0–9.0 versus 40–60 °C and 5.0–8.0, respectively). The modified enzyme retained more than 80% activity after incubating in xylan for 3 h at 80 °C as compared to wild −type with only 45% residual activity. Our study demonstrated that proper introduction of proline residues on C-terminal surface of xylanase family might be very effective in improvement of enzyme thermostability. Moreover, this study reveals an engineering strategy to improve the catalytic performance of enzymes.     

Fed-batch culture of recombinant Saccharomyces cerevisiae for glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase production

We examined glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase (G6PD) production by fed-batch cultivation, using a recombinant strain of Saccharomyces cerevisiae W303-181 overexpressing this enzyme. The cultivations were carried out in a 3 L fermenter at pH 5.7, 30 °C, 2.0 vvm aeration, 200 rpm agitation and an inoculum concentration of 1.0 g/L. The volume of the culture medium in the fed-batch process varied from 1.333 to 2.0 L, due to the addition of 15.0 g/L glucose solution during 5 h. Different feeding rates were studied (exponentially increasing and decreasing feeding rates), and the feeding profile was determined by values of the parameter K (time constant), namely: 0.2, 0.5 and 0.8 h⁻¹. The best enzyme production (847 U/L) was obtained with an exponentially increasing feeding rate and K = 0.2 h⁻¹. The results attained also showed that this process is promising for G6PD production.     

Cloning,characterization and validation of inosine 5′-monophosphate dehydrogenase of Babesia gibsoni as molecular drug target

The inosine monophosphate dehydrogenase (IMPDH) enzyme has been characterized and validated as a molecular drug target in other apicomplexans but not in the genus Babesia. Subsequently, we cloned and expressed a Babesia gibsoni IMPDH (BgIMPDH) cDNA in Escherichia coli. We also determined the inhibitory effect of mycophenolic acid (MPA) on recombinant BgIMPDH (rBgIMPDH) activity and the Babesia-growths in vitro. The translated BgIMPDH peptide contained thirteen amino acid residues responsible for substrate and cofactor binding in its catalytic domain with Gly374 in BgIMPDH being replaced by Ser388 in mammalian IMPDH. The native BgIMPDH enzyme in the parasite was approximately 54-kDa a mass similar to His-tag rBgIMPDH protein. The K_m values of the rBgIMPDH were 8.18 ± 0.878 (mean ± standard error of the mean) μM and 360.80 ± 43.41 μM for IMP and NAD⁺, respectively. MPA inhibited the rBgIMPDH activity yielding a K_i value of 20.93 ± 1.83 μM with respect to NAD⁺. For Babesia growths, the IC₅₀s were 0.95 ± 0.21 and 2.88 ± 0.49 μM for B. gibsoni and B. bovis, respectively. Therefore, our results suggest that MPA may inhibit the replication of Babesia parasites by targeting IMPDH enzyme of the purine pathway.     

Enantioselective synthesis of (S)-phenylephrine by whole cells of recombinant Escherichia coli expressing the amino alcohol dehydrogenase gene from Rhodococcus erythropolis BCRC 10909

(R)-phenylephrine [(R)-PE] is an α₁-adrenergic receptor agonist that is widely used in over-the-counter drugs to treat the common cold. We found that Rhodococcus erythropolis BCRC 10909 can convert detectable level of 1-(3-hydroxyphenyl)-2-(methylamino) ethanone (HPMAE) to (S)-PE by high performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry analysis. An amino alcohol dehydrogenase gene (RE_AADH) which possesses the ability to convert HPMAE to (S)-PE was then isolated from R. erythropolis BCRC 10909 and expressed in Escherichia coli NovaBlue. The purified RE_AADH, tagged with 6×His, had a molecular mass of approximately 30 kDa and exhibited a specific activity of 0.19 μU/mg to HPMAE in the presence of NADPH, indicating this enzyme could be categorized as NADP⁺-dependent short-chain dehydrogenase reductase. E. coli NovaBlue cell expressing the RE_AADH gene was able to convert HPMAE to (S)-PE with more than 99% enantiomeric excess (ee), 78% yield and a productivity of 3.9 mmol (S)-PE/L h in 12 h at 30 °C and pH 7. The (S)-PE, recovered from reaction mixture by precipitation at pH 11.3, could be converted to (R)-PE (ee > 99%) by Walden inversion reaction. This is the first reported biocatalytic process for the production of (S)-PE from HPMAE.     

Development of robust in vitro RNA-dependent RNA polymerase assay as a possible platform for antiviral drug testing against dengue

NS5 is the largest and most conserved protein among the four dengue virus (DENV) serotypes. It has been the target of interest for antiviral drug development due to its major role in replication. NS5 consists of two domains, the N-terminal methyltransferase domain and C-terminal catalytic RNA-dependent RNA polymerase (RdRp) domain. It is an unstable protein and is prone to inactivation upon prolonged incubation at room temperature, thus affecting the inhibitor screening assays. In the current study, we expressed and purified DENV RdRp alone in Esherichia coli (E. coli) cells. The N-terminally His-tagged construct of DENV RdRp was transformed into E. coli expression strain BL-21 (DE3) pLysS cells. Protein expression was induced with isopropyl-β-D-thiogalactopyranoside (IPTG) at a final concentration of 0.4 mM. The induced cultures were then grown for 20 h at 18 °C and cells were harvested by centrifugation at 6000 x g for 15 min at 4 °C. The recombinant protein was purified using HisTrap affinity column (Ni-NTA) and then the sample was subjected to size exclusion chromatography, which successfully removed the degradation product obtained during the previous purification step. The in vitro polymerase activity of RdRp was successfully demonstrated using homopolymeric polycytidylic acid (poly(rC)) RNA template. This study describes the high level production of enzymatically active DENV RdRp protein which can be used to develop assays for testing large number of compounds in a high-throughput manner. RdRp has the de novo initiation activity and the in vitro polymerase assays for the protein provide a platform for highly robust and efficient antiviral compound screening systems.     

Deletion and site-directed mutagenesis of laccase from Shigella dysenteriae results in enhanced enzymatic activity and thermostability

A putative laccase gene was cloned from Shigella dysenteriae W202 and expressed in Escherichia coli as a soluble fusion protein with high yield. The purified product (Wlac) was characterized as the CueO-like laccase from E. coli, a monomer of molecular mass 55 kDa, with a maximum activity of 24.4 U/mg (K_m = 0.086) and a pH optimum of 2.5, in a standard assay using ABTS (2,2′-azino-di(3-ethyl-benzthiazoline-6-sulfonate) as the substrate. Activity was stable at 0–25 °C but inhibited above 40 °C. Purified Wlac was completely inhibited by 200 mM EDTA and partially by 32 mM SDS, 50 mM NaN₃ and 60 mM thioglycolic acid. Activity was stimulated by Cu²⁺; other metal ions had only slight or negative effects. Two mutated variants, WlacS and WlacD, were obtained by substituting Glu 106 with Phe 106, and adding a deletion of an α-helix domain (from Leu 351 to Gly 378). WlacS had a 2.2-fold (52.9 U/mg) and WlacD a 3.5-fold (85.1 U/mg) higher enzyme activity than the wild-type laccase and WlacD showed greater thermostability at higher temperatures. Sce VMA intein-associated fusion proteins maintained ～80% of total enzyme activity. Thus, deletion and site-directed mutagenesis of laccases are capable of promoting both enzymatic activity and thermostability.     

Enhanced anaerobic succinic acid production by Escherichia coli NZN111 aerobically grown on gluconeogenic carbon sources

Escherichia coli strain NZN111, a pflB and ldhA double mutant of E. coli W1485, is considered a candidate of succinic acid producer. However, it is reported that this strain fails to ferment glucose anaerobically. In this study, it was demonstrated that when a gluconeogenic carbon source was used to replace glucose in aerobic culture, the NZN111 cells restored the ability to ferment glucose in the subsequent anaerobic culture with succinic acid as the major product even though no further genetic manipulation had been carried out. Activities of enzymes including phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) carboxykinase, PEP carboxylase, isocitrate lyase, malate dehydrogenase, malic enzyme, and pyruvate kinase in the NZN111 cells aerobically grown on different carbon sources were measured, and enhanced anaplerotic and oxaloacetate-reducing activities were revealed. Furthermore, supply of MgCO₃ or NaHCO₃ greatly improved succinate production by the malate-grown NZN111 cells. At the same time, pyruvic acid production was significantly reduced. When the malate-grown cells were anaerobically cultured in a salt medium with high pH buffering capacity, succinic acid was produced at a specific productivity of 308 mg/(g DCW h) with a molar yield of 1.31 mol succinic acid/mol glucose.     

Studies on the expression of recombinant fuculose-1-phosphate aldolase in E. coli

Fuculose-1-phosphate aldolase (Fuc-1-PA) is a dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) dependent aldolase with potential application in chiral synthesis. The influence of the growth medium on the expression of the enzyme in Escherichia coli has been studied. Complex LB medium, a defined medium (MD) and a semi-complex medium (MSC) have been compared in order to maximize aldolase production. The defined medium produced highest expression levels (700 activity units (AU)/g of dry cell weight (DCW)). The optimal induced isopropyl-β-thiogalactopyranoside (IPTG) concentration of 100 μM produces in the MD medium of 41 μmol/g dry cell weight of enzyme.     

Engineering of an N-acetylneuraminic acid synthetic pathway in Escherichia coli

N-acetylneuraminic acid (NeuAc) has recently drawn much attention owing to its wide applications in many aspects. Besides extraction from natural materials, production of NeuAc was recently focused on enzymatic synthesis and whole-cell biocatalysis. In this study, we designed an artificial NeuAc biosynthetic pathway through intermediate N-acetylglucosamine 6-phosphate in Escherichia coli. In this pathway, N-acetylglucosamine 2-epimerase (slr1975) and glucosamine-6-phosphate acetyltransferase (GNA1) were heterologously introduced into E. coli from Synechocystis sp. PCC6803 and Saccharomyces cerevisiae EBY100, respectively. By derepressing the feedback inhibition of glucosamine-6-phosphate synthase, increasing the accumulation of N-acetylglucosamine and pyruvate, and blocking the catabolism of NeuAc, we were able to produce 1.62 g l^?1 NeuAc in recombinant E. coli directly from glucose. The NeuAc yield reached 7.85 g l^?1 in fed-batch fermentation. This process offered an efficient fermentative method to produce NeuAc in microorganisms using glucose as carbon source and can be optimized for further improvement.     

Cloning,heterologous expression and characterization of two keratinases from Stenotrophomonas maltophilia BBE11-1

The keratin-degrading strain Stenotrophomonas maltophilia BBE11-1 secretes two keratinolytic proteases, KerSMD and KerSMF. However, the genes encoding these proteases remain unknown. Here, we have isolated these two genes with a modified TAIL-PCR (thermal asymmetric interlaced PCR) method based on the N-terminal amino acid sequences of mature keratinases. These two keratinase genes encode serine proteases with PPC (bacterial pre-peptidase C-terminal) domain, which are successfully expressed with the help of pelB leader in Escherichia coli cells. Recombinant KerSMD (48 kDa) shows a better activity in feather degradation, higher thermostability and substrate specificity than KerSMF (40 kDa). KerSMD has a t_1/2 of 90 min at 50 °C and 64 min at 60 °C, and a better tolerance to surfactants SDS and triton X-100. The predicted model of KerSMD helps to explain the phenomenon of auto-catalytic C-terminal propeptide truncation, the special function of PPC domain, and the molecular weight of the C-terminal-processed mature keratinase KerSMD. This work not only provides a new way to overproduce keratinases but also helps to explore keratinases folding mechanism.     

Construction of recombinant Escherichia coli for enhanced bioconversion of colchicine into 3-demethylated colchicine at 70 l bioreactor level

A recombinant strain of Escherichia coli with CYP102A1 gene was developed for the demethylation of colchicine into their derivatives. The CYP102A1 gene responsible for demethylation was isolated from Bacillus megaterium ACBT03 and amplified using suitable primers. The amplified product was cloned into pET28a+ expression vector using host E. coli BL21(DE3) cells. The CYP3A4 (product of CYP102A1 gene) protein expression and other parameters like substrate toxicity, product toxicity and enzyme activity were optimized in shake flasks; and further scaled-up to 5 l bioreactor with 3 l working volume. In 5 l bioreactor, dissolved oxygen (DO) was optimized for maximum specific growth and enhanced 3-demethylated colchicine (3-DMC) production. The optimized conditions from shake flasks were scaled-up to 70 l bioreactor and resulted into ∼80% conversion of 20 mM colchicine in 48 h with a volumetric productivity of 6.62 mg l⁻¹ h⁻¹. Scale-up factors were measured as volumetric oxygen transfer coefficient (k_La) i.e., 56 h⁻¹ and impeller tip velocity (V_tip) i.e., 7.065 m s⁻¹, respectively. The kinetic parameters K_m, k_cat, and k_cat/K_m of the CYP3A4 enzyme using colchicine as the substrate were determined to be 271 ± 30 μM, 8533 ± 25 min⁻¹, and 31.49 μM min⁻¹, respectively, when IPTG induced recombinant E. coli culture was used.