Mapping Wolbachia distributions in the adult Drosophila brain

The maternally inherited bacterium Wolbachia infects the germline of most arthropod species. Using Drosophila simulans and D. melanogaster, we demonstrate that localization of Wolbachia to the fat bodies and adult brain is likely also a conserved feature of Wolbachia infection. Examination of three Wolbachia strains (W_Mel, W_Riv, W_Pop) revealed that the bacteria preferentially concentrate in the central brain with low titres in the optic lobes. Distribution within regions of the central brain is largely determined by the Wolbachia strain, while the titre is influenced by both, the host species and the bacteria strain. In neurons of the central brain and ventral nerve cord, Wolbachia preferentially localizes to the neuronal cell bodies but not to axons. All examined Wolbachia strains are present intracellularly or in extracellular clusters, with the pathogenic W_Pop strain exhibiting the largest and most abundant clusters. We also discovered that 16 of 40 lines from the Drosophila Genetic Reference Panel are Wolbachia infected. Direct comparison of Wolbachia infected and cured lines from this panel reveals that differences in physiological traits (chill coma recovery, starvation, longevity) are partially due to host line influences. In addition, a tetracycline‐induced increase in Drosophila longevity was detected many generations after treatment.     

Drosophila C virus and Drosophila hosts: a good association in various environments

To discover whether the beneficial effects observed when Drosophila C virus (DCV_C) infects Drosophila larvae should be considered as a specific case or, as a general rule, the DCV_C-Drosophila association was studied in different environments (3 host-populations, 2 temperatures, 2 viral dose). We measured pre-adult mortality, developmental time and number of ovarioles per fly. In all experiments, and, in all contaminated populations, DCV_C could be considered, either a parasite since it increased pre-adult mortality, or a symbiont since it decreased developmental time and increased mean number of ovarioles. The viral dose necessary for the appearance of beneficial effects varied with population, temperature and life-cycle parameters. A sufficient number of viral particles appears necessary at a specific point in the host life-cycle for a beneficial DCV_C effect on the host. DCV_C does not affect the variance of any of these parameters. The observed changes in DCV_C-contaminated populations were thus not a response to the selection pressure of DCV_C. Two arguments support the association as an example of the “cohabitation-without-struggle model” and will be discussed.     

Stability of biocontrol products carrying Candida sake CPA-1 in starch derivatives as a function of water activity

The preservation and shelf-life of formulations of the biocontrol agent Candida sake CPA-1 and starch derivatives as a function of water activity (a_W) were studied in terms of the physical stability of the products and cell viability. Formulations of biocontrol products (BCPs), based on combinations of potato starch and pre-gelatinised potato starch (F1 and F2) or maltodextrines (MD) (F3) containing cell protectants, were obtained by fluidised-bed drying. The carriers and the formulated products were stored at 20°C under different a_W conditions. The water sorption and water plasticization behaviour of the different products were analysed through the water sorption isotherms and glass transition temperatures (T_g). Likewise, the viability of C. sake over time was determined as a function of the a_W. The solubility of the products was also assessed. Although formulations stored at 20°C and low a_W (≤?0.33) exhibited a better shelf-life, a significant decrease in cell survival ratio after 180 storage days was observed. Cold storage (5°C) was required to better maintain the cell viability, thus prolonging the shelf-life of BCPs. Formulations containing MD were the most effective at preserving cell viability and also exhibited the highest water solubility. All the formulations were physically stable at ambient temperature; therefore, the cell stability is the critical point at which to establish both the a_W levels and temperature during storage. Packaging the product using high water vapour barrier material and under cold storage would be necessary to ensure a high number of viable cells and an effective and competitive BCP.     

Evaluation of maize productivity considering solar energy use limitation by environmental factors

Evaluation of maize productivity under different climatic conditions was made by determination of the amount of the incident solar radiation energy in the PAR range, which can be potentially used by plants for photosynthesis. An irradiance, which can be stored in primary photosynthesis, designated as photosynthetic energy, W _ph, was estimated taking into account the action spectra of photosynthesis. Limitation of the W _ph usage, owing to unfavorable environmental factors was considered. Quantitative evaluation of limitations by two such factors, air temperature and soil water potential, was made by means of the coefficients F(i), which were defined as the ratio between the photosynthetic rate at a given value of a particular environmental factor and that at the optimal value for this factor. The coefficients F(i), were determined from the dependencies of the photosynthesis rate on air temperature and soil water potential as obtained in chamber and field experiments. In general terms, the fraction of W _ph, which can be utilized under a given climatic condition, was named bioclimatic potential, W _pc. In our model, the effect of monodominancy, when strong action of one factor suppresses the influence of any other factor, was considered. In this case, the bioclimatic potential, designated W′_pc, was calculated by multiplying W _ph times the coefficient F, for the factor which was most limiting during the period of measurement. There was close correlation between values of bioclimatic potential for the period of vegetation, W′_pc,v, and total dry matter. W′_pc,v use efficiency in the maize crop was also evaluated for five variants of mineral nutrition. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Identification of the Drosophila and Tribolium receptors for the recently discovered insect RYamide neuropeptides

One year ago, we discovered a new family of insect RYamide neuropeptides, which has the C-terminal consensus sequence FFXXXRYamide, and which is widely occurring in most insects, including the fruitfly Drosophila melanogaster and the red flour beetle Tribolium castaneum (F. Hauser et al., J. Proteome Res. 9 (2010) 5296–5310). Here, we identify a Drosophila G-protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) coded for by gene CG5811 and its Tribolium GPCR ortholog as insect RYamide receptors. The Drosophila RYamide receptor is equally well activated (EC₅₀, 1 × 10⁻⁹ M) by the two Drosophila RYamide neuropeptides: RYamide-1 (PVFFVASRYamide) and RYamide-2 (NEHFFLGSRYamide), both contained in a preprohormone coded for by gene CG40733. The Tribolium receptor shows a somewhat higher affinity to Tribolium RYamide-2 (ADAFFLGPRYamide; EC₅₀, 5 × 10⁻⁹ M) than to Tribolium RYamide-1 (VQNLATFKTMMRYamide; EC₅₀, 7 × 10⁻⁸ M), which might be due to the fact that the last peptide does not completely follow the RYamide consensus sequence rule. There are other neuropeptides in insects that have similar C-terminal sequences (RWamide or RFamide), such as the FMRFamides, sulfakinins, myosuppressins, neuropeptides F, and the various short neuropeptides F. Amazingly, these neuropeptides show no cross-reactivity to the Tribolium RYamide receptor, while the Drosophila RYamide receptor is only very slightly activated by high concentrations (>10⁻⁶ M) of neuropeptide F and short neuropeptide F-1, showing that the two RYamide receptors are quite specific for activation by insect RYamides, and that the sequence FFXXXRYamide is needed for effective insect RYamide receptor activation. Phylogenetic tree analyses and other amino acid sequence comparisons show that the insect RYamide receptors are not closely related to any other known insect or invertebrate/vertebrate receptors, including mammalian neuropeptide Y and insect neuropeptide F and short neuropeptide F receptors. Gene expression data published in Flybase (www.flybase.org) show that the Drosophila CG5811 gene is significantly expressed in the hindgut of adult flies, suggesting a role of insect RYamides in digestion or water reabsorption.     

Allocation of Matter in the Body of Growing Toads,Bufo bufo: Components of ‘Condition’

The condition, CI = [body mass (g)/length (cm)³]-1000, tends to increase in toads growing in the laboratory on a diet of meal-worms. The allocation was therefore studied of ingested food to growth corresponding to maintenance of standard condition (ΔW_S) and to increases in condition, expressing bulky growth. A condition index of 100, typical of toad populations, is chosen to characterize standard growth, higher values expressing bulky growth. The relationship between mass specific standard growth (ΔW_s/W₀) and actual growth in mass (ΔW/W₀) was the same in controls and growth hormone-treated toads and was independent of sex and season. It could be described by the allometric equation ΔW_s/W₀ = 0.28 (ΔW/W₀)^1.36, r = 0.93. The composition of mass representing increases in bulk in excess of a CI = 100 was assessed from allometric relationships established between the indices of the chemical constituents and the overall condition index. The increases in condition were partitioned among the organs and parts of the body from allometric relationships established between indices of organs and body parts and the overall condition index. Treatment with growth hormone enhanced growth in mass and significantly increased the relative proportion of mass allocated to standard growth. However, the effect was not specific to growth hormone, but was an indirect effect of the increased growth rate. Water was the predominant constituent of the growth in bulk, amounting to about 70% of increases in CI. Fat and protein contributed about equally initially, 5–10%, with fat strongly increasing and protein slightly decreasing with increasing condition, fat to approach 20–30% when CI approached 200. Increases in water content largely reflected increases in volume of blood and lymph.     

Biomass Partitioning and Gas Exchange in Dalbergia sissoo seedlings under water stress

Biomass, leaf water potential (_l), net photosynthetic rate (P _N), transpiration rate (E), stomatal conductance (g _s), leaf to air temperature difference (T _diff), and instantaneous water use efficiency (WUE) were measured in the seedlings of Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. grown under irrigation of 20 (W₁), 14 (W₂), 10 (W₃), and 8 (W₄) mm. Treatments were maintained by re-irrigation when water content of the soil reached 7.4% in W₁, 5.6% in W₂, 4.3% in W₃, and 3.2% in W₄. Seedlings in a control (W₅) were left without irrigation after maintaining the soil field capacity (10.7%). Seedlings of W₁ had highest biomass that was one tenth in W₅. Biomass allocation was highest in leaf in W₂ and in root in W₄ and W₅ treatments. Difference between predawn leaf water potential (_Pd) and midday (_mid) increased with soil water stress and with vapour pressure deficit (VPD) in April and May slowing down the recovery in plant leaf water status after transpiration loss. P _N, E, and g _s declined and T _diff increased from W₁ to W₅. Their values were highly significant in April and May for the severely stressed seedlings of W₄ and W₅. P _N increased from 08:00 to 10:00 and E increased until 13:00 within the day for most of the seedlings whereas g _s decreased throughout the day from 08:00 to 17:00. P _N and E were highest in March but their values were low in January, February, April, and May. Large variations in physiological variables to air temperature, photosynthetically active radiation, and vapour pressure deficit (VPD) indicated greater sensitivity of the species to environmental factors. WUE increased from W₁ to W₂ but decreased drastically at high water stress particularly during hot summer showing a kind of adaptation in D. sissoo to water stress. However, low biomass and reduced physiological functions at <50% of soil field capacity suggest that this species does not produce significant biomass at severe soil water stress or drought of a prolonged period.     

A genomic investigation of ecological differentiation between free‐living and Drosophila‐associated bacteria

Various bacterial taxa have been identified both in association with animals and in the external environment, but the extent to which related bacteria from the two habitat types are ecologically and evolutionarily distinct is largely unknown. This study investigated the scale and pattern of genetic differentiation between bacteria of the family Acetobacteraceae isolated from the guts of Drosophila fruit flies, plant material and industrial fermentations. Genome‐scale analysis of the phylogenetic relationships and predicted functions was conducted on 44 Acetobacteraceae isolates, including newly sequenced genomes from 18 isolates from wild and laboratory Drosophila. Isolates from the external environment and Drosophila could not be assigned to distinct phylogenetic groups, nor are their genomes enriched for any different sets of genes or category of predicted gene functions. In contrast, analysis of bacteria from laboratory Drosophila showed they were genetically distinct in their universal capacity to degrade uric acid (a major nitrogenous waste product of Drosophila) and absence of flagellar motility, while these traits vary among wild Drosophila isolates. Analysis of the competitive fitness of Acetobacter discordant for these traits revealed a significant fitness deficit for bacteria that cannot degrade uric acid in culture with Drosophila. We propose that, for wild populations, frequent cycling of Acetobacter between Drosophila and the external environment prevents genetic differentiation by maintaining selection for traits adaptive in both the gut and external habitats. However, laboratory isolates bear the signs of adaptation to persistent association with the Drosophila host under tightly defined environmental conditions.     

Genotypic variation for drought tolerance in cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.): Leaf gas exchange and productivity

Although water-limited environments are detrimental to cotton growth and productivity worldwide, identification of cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) genotypes that are less sensitive to drought may improve productivity in drought prone areas. The objective of the study was to assess genotypic variation for drought tolerance in cotton varieties using physiological attributes as selection criteria, and to determine the relationship of physiological attributes with productivity traits. The association of target physiological traits for drought tolerance (photosynthetic rate (P_n), stomatal conductance (g_s), and transpiration rate (E)) with productivity traits under well-watered (W₁) and water-limited (W₂) regimes was analyzed using 32 public cotton cultivars/bred lines in two field experiments conducted during the normal cotton growing seasons 2003 and 2004. Seed cotton yield (SCY) and biological yield (BY) were markedly affected under W₂ regime in all cultivars except the outstanding performance of CIM-1100 and RH-510 proving their superiority to other cultivars in drought tolerance. Conversely, FH-901, FH-634, and FH-2000 were high yielding under W₁ regime; however, exhibited a sharp decline in yield under W₂ regime. A positive correlation between SCY and BY under water stress (r=0.44 in 2003; r=0.69 in 2004) indicates that BY is also a primary determinant of SCY under water stress and genetic improvement of BY under water-limited environment may also improve SCY. P_n, g_s, and E were significantly reduced by water stress. Substantial genotypic variation for gas exchange attributes existed among the cotton cultivars. A positive association (P<0.01) was observed between g_s and E under both regimes in both years indicating the prevalence of stomatal control of transpiration. The positive association (P<0.01) between P_n and g_s in both years in W₂ regime indicates also a major role of stomatal effects in regulating leaf photosynthesis under water-limited conditions. P_n was significantly correlated with SCY (P<0.01) and BY (P<0.05 in 2003; P<0.01 in 2004) in W₂ regime; however, the level of these associations was not significant in W₁ regime. These findings demonstrate that association of P_n with productivity is effective under water-limited environment and may be useful as a selection criterion in breeding programs with the objective of improving drought tolerance and SCY under water-limited environments. Moreover, association between SCY and BY under water stress suggests that genetic improvement of BY under water stress may also improve SCY.     

珍稀植物狭果秤锤树群落木本植物种间联结性及群落稳定性研究

在珍稀植物狭果秤锤树集中分布地设置0.5 hm~2的固定样地,采用相邻格子法进行野外调查,在2×2联列表基础上,运用x2和W检验,联结系数(AC)、共同出现百分率(PC)的种间联结性分析和M.Godron群落稳定性测定方法,对狭果秤锤树群落中频度较高的24个木本植物优势种,276个种对间的联结性及群落稳定性进行了研究,以评价狭果秤锤树这一稀有种群的种间关系及群落稳定性。联结性分析表明,群落总体联结性VR(方差比率)1,检验统计量W≤x_(0.05(50))~2,显示群落木本种群间表现出净的正关联,但未达到显著水平。联结性测定指标显示,狭果秤锤树与大多种群关联不显著,表现出相对独立性和随机性,关系松散。群落稳定性比值为35/65,远离20/80,表明群落总体不稳定。狭果秤锤树群落尚未达到稳定阶段,急需加强保护。在物种就地保护和回归实践中,可选择和保护与之正联结的物种,建立适宜的生存环境以达到更好的保护效果。     

ISOLATION AND CHARACTERIZATION OF MYELIN-RELATED MEMBRANES

Abstract— Myelin related membrane fractions from rat brain and spinal cord were isolated from material normally discarded during standard myelin isolation procedures. A fraction which floated on 0.32 M-sucrose (F) and the material released after subjecting the myelin fraction to osmotic shock at two stages in the purification (W₁ and W₂) were characterized. These fractions were subjected to subfractionation on three step discontinuous sucrose gradients. Morphologically, the heavier subfrac-tions of W₁ and W₂ were shown to consist mainly of single membranes and vesicles. Sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS) polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis showed that, relative to myelin, proteolipid and basic protein were reduced in all subfractions, while the high molecular weight proteins were increased. The specific activity of 2′,3′-cyclic nucleotide 3′-phosphohydrolase (CNP) was up to 2-fold higher than that of myelin in the heavier subfractions of W₁ and W₂. The major myelin-associated glycoprotein was also increased in these subfractions as determined by periodic acid-Schiff staining. Differential centrifugation of the initial tissue homogenate to remove microsomes prior to myelin isolation gave rise to W₁ and W₂ subfractions with a CNP specific activity 3–4 times that of myelin. The high molecular weight proteins and glycoproteins were enriched in these microsome-depleted subfractions, but were qualitatively similar to those of myelin. Some of the membranes in these fractions may be derived from the continuum between the plasma membrane of the oligodendrocyte and compact myelin. Fraction F consisted of small membrane fragments and many vesicles, and was particularly deficient in proteolipid. The specific activity of CNP in fraction F was about the same as myelin, while the major myelin associated glycoprotein could not be detected. Fraction F from normal CNS tissue appears to be similar to the floating fractions previously isolated in larger amounts from pathological brain undergoing edematous demyelination.     

A consideration of Euglena gracilis W3BUL as a cytoplasmic control for the wild-type phenylalanyl-tRNA synthetase system

The studies described indicate that the UV bleached mutant, Euglena gracilis W₃BUL does not serve as a suitable cytoplasmic control for the phenylalanyl-tRNA synthetase system. Chromatography of wild-type E. gracilis on Sephadex G100 revealed three peaks of activity identified as the chloroplastic, cytoplasmic and mitochondrial enzymes. The chloroplastic activity was greater in log than in stationary phase cells and was the only activity recovered from purified chloroplasts. Cell-free extracts of the achloroplastic mutant, E. gracilis W₃BUL, contained wild-type levels of the cytoplasmic and mitochondrial phenylalanyl-tRNA synthetases. However, no chloroplastic synthetase was detected in the mutant extracts. Anomalies in the aminoacylation behavior of the W₃BUL system were observed which suggest the possibility of a mutation affecting non-chloroplastic tRNAs in this UV-induced mutant. These anomalies significantly reduce the ability of the E. gracilis W₃BUL mutant to serve as a cytoplasmic control in the phenylalanyl-tRNA synthetase system.     

Oxidative stress contributes to muscle atrophy in chronic kidney disease patients

Abstract

Objectives

Patients with chronic kidney disease have impaired muscle metabolism, resulting in muscle atrophy. Oxidative stress has previously been identified as a significant contributor to muscle atrophy in other populations, but the contribution in chronic kidney disease is unknown. The aim of this study was to investigate the association between oxidative stress, grip strength, and lean mass in patients with chronic kidney disease.

Methods

This is a cross-sectional study of 152 participants with stage 3 or 4 chronic kidney disease. Outcome measures include grip strength, lean mass, plasma total F2-isoprostanes, inflammation, peak oxygen uptake, and standard clinical measures.

Results

Thirty four (22.4%) chronic kidney disease patients had elevated oxidative stress levels (plasma F2-isoprostanes >250 pg/ml), with 82% of patients below age-predicted grip strength normative values. There was a significant negative association between plasma F2-isoprostanes and grip strength (r = ?0.251) and lean mass (r = ?0.243). There were no associations with inflammation markers. Multiple linear regression identified plasma F2-isoprostanes as a significant predictor of grip strength independent of other predictors: sex, diabetes status, body mass index, body fat percent, and phosphate (adjusted r² = 69.5, P < 0.001).

Discussion

Plasma F2-isoprostanes were independently associated with reduced strength in chronic kidney disease patients.     

Adaptation of Drosophila enzymes to temperature IV. Natural selection at the alcohol-dehydrogenase locus

Studies were carried out on the temperature-dependent kinetic properties (K_m, Q₁₀, E_a, thermostability) of alcohol-dehydrogenase allozymes from D. melanogaster. It was shown that there is a parallelism between the biochemical properties of the enzymes and the behaviour of the genes in natural and cage populations. Furthermore, the relationship between the temperature-dependent kinetic properties of alcohol dehydrogenase and assay temperature was examined in three tropical and two temperate Drosophila species. K_m patterns were similar among species from the same habitat and different between habitats. No such parallelism was seen with respect to thermal inactivation. The Q₁₀ values in general reflected temperature-dependent changes in K_m. It is discussed that the mechanistic connection observed between the biochemical and population levels (intra-and interspecifically) strongly suggests that temperature acts as a selective factor on the structural Adh locus in the genus Drosophila.     

Alterations of the manifestations of hybrid breakdown in Lycopersicon esculentum L. pennellii F2 populations containing L. esculentum versus L. pennellii cytoplasm

Reproductive abnormalities reduced the percent stainable pollen, and fruit and seed set in interspecific F₂ populations derived from crosses of Lycopersicon esculentum and L. pennellii but were not observed in parental lines and interspecific F₁ populations. The degree to which these reproductive abnormalities were expressed in the interspecific F₂ populations was affected by cytoplasm. Reproduction was impeded in interspecific F₂ populations containing L. esculentum cytoplasm (F ₂ ^Le ) by reduction in pollen production, the lack of fruit set and a high proportion of parthenocarpic fruit among plants capable of fruit set. The F₂ populations containing L. pennellii cytoplasm (F ₂ ^Lp4 ) showed a reduced frequency of reproductive abnormalities at all stages of reproductive development, resulting in higher values for percent stainable pollen, fruit and seed set and higher proportions of the F ₂ ^Lp4 populations being capable of setting fruit or seed than F ₂ ^Le populations. The major barrier remaining in F ₂ ^Lp4 populations was reduced fruit set compared to parental lines. The barrier to fruit and seed set observed in the F ₂ ^Le populations, and to a lesser extent in the F ₂ ^Lp4 populations, occurs around the time of fertilization or early embryonic development. The effect of L. pennellii cytoplasm on barriers in the F ₂ ^Lp4 populations is proposed to be due to an interaction between cytoplasmic and nuclear genes during fertilization of the F₁ plants to produce F₂ populations and may also affect subsequent generations.     

Size at sex change and reproductive cycle of the limpets Patella vulgata and Patella ulyssiponensis (Mollusca: Patellogastropoda) from intertidal rocky shores of the Algarve coast (southern Portugal)

ABSTRACT

This study describes the reproductive cycle of the common limpet (Patella vulgata) and rough limpet (Patella ulyssiponensis) from the Algarve coast (southern Portugal). Individuals of both species were sampled monthly during two consecutive years, and subjected to gonad histology and calculation of the mean gonadal index (GI). Both species had balanced sex ratios (P. vulgata = 1M: 0.98F; P. ulyssiponensis = 1M: 1.03F), similar size-frequency distribution between sexes, and equivalent mean shell lengths (SL) and total weights (TW) between males and females. In these protandrous hermaphrodites, the estimated size at sex change was slightly smaller in P. vulgata (SL₅₀ ≈ 29 mm) than in P. ulyssiponensis (SL₅₀ ≈ 36 mm). The reproductive cycles of both species were characterised by a main spawning season in early spring to early summer, sometimes including subsidiary spawning events. A comparison of the main spawning season throughout the species distributional ranges revealed that populations of P. vulgata and P. ulyssiponensis from southern Portugal have later spawning periods than other populations from the northeastern Atlantic Ocean. The present information is relevant for conservation purposes and for the proposal of management measures for the harvesting activity targeting P. vulgata and P. ulyssiponensis in southern Portugal.     

On weight dependence of net growth efficiency and specific respiration rates among field populations of invertebrates

Summary Annual net growth efficiency (NGE) is approximated here by 100 P _a/(P _a+R _a), P _a and R _a being the annual production and respiration rates of populations per unit area. Published NGE values for 15 temperate invertebrate populations range from 13 to 55%. Contrary to the literature on NGE among speices, the dependence of NGE on species size (as body weight at the onset of sexual maturity, W _s) is not yet determined although the ranges of P _a and R _a, divided by the mean biomass , approach two orders of magnitude. The rates of 13 of these populations decline with a -0.35 power of W _s rather than the -0.25 power of comparative physiology. A possible reason may be a trend towards larger specimens (relative to W _s or full size) in populations of larger species. Among species, a significant dependence of NGE on W _s (or full size) is not demonstrable for laboratory populations of unicellular organisms and field populations of mammals so that the cost per unit of production might generally be independent of the rate of production by the population.     

Length to weight ratio of four fish species in estuary areas in the Northeast region of Brazil

The length to weight ratio (LWR) was used to estimate populations of four fish species sampled on the Amazon coast of the state of Maranhão, Brazil. The fishes were sampled in 2018 and 2019 by artisanal coastal fishing, using gillnets (0.20–0.60 mm). The parameters a and b of the equation W_T = a L_T^b were estimated. The obtained LWRs were W_T = 0.06LT^2.93, (r²) = .989 for Oligoplites saliens; W_T = 0.061L_T^2.57, (r²) = .982 for Peprilus crenulatus; W_T = 0.014L_T^2.80, (r²) = .985 for Bagre bagre; and W_T = 0.035L_T^3.21, (r²) = .981 for Nebris microps.     

Genetic consequences of glacial survival: the late Quaternary history of balsam poplar (Populus balsamifera L.) in North America

Aim Beringia, the unglaciated region encompassing the former Bering land bridge, as well as the land between the Lena and Mackenzie rivers, is recognized as an important refugium for arctic plants during the last ice age. Compelling palaeobotanical evidence also supports the presence of small populations of boreal trees within Beringia during the Last Glacial Maximum. The occurrence of balsam poplar (Populus balsamifera) in Beringia provides a unique opportunity to assess the implications of persistence in a refugium on present‐day genetic diversity for this boreal tree species. Location North America. Methods We sequenced three variable non‐coding regions of the chloroplast genome (cpDNA) from 40 widely distributed populations of balsam poplar across its North American range. We assessed patterns of genetic diversity, geographic structure and historical demography between glaciated and unglaciated regions of the balsam poplar’s range. We also utilized a coalescent model to test for divergence between regions. Results Levels of genetic diversity were consistently greater for populations at the southern margin (θ_W = 0.00122) than in the central (θ_W = 0.00086) or northern (θ_W = 0.00034) regions of the current distribution of balsam poplar, and diversity decreased with increasing latitude (R² = 0.49, P < 0.01). We detected low, but significant, structure (F_CT = 0.05, P = 0.05), among regions of P. balsamifera’s distribution. The cpDNA genealogy was shallow, however, showing an absence of highly differentiated chloroplast haplotypes. Coalescent analyses supported a model of divergence between the southern ice margin and the northern unglaciated region of balsam poplar’s distribution, but analyses of other regional comparisons did not converge. Main conclusions The palaeobotanical record supports the presence of a Beringian refugium for balsam poplar, but we were unable to definitively identify the presence of known refugial populations based on genetic data alone. Balsam poplar populations from Beringia are not a significant reservoir of cpDNA diversity today. Unique alleles that may have been present in the small, isolated populations that survived within Beringia were probably lost through genetic drift or swamped by post‐glacial, northward migration from populations south of the ice sheets.