Biomimetics and technical textiles: solving engineering problems with the help of nature's wisdom

The significance of inspiration from nature for technical textiles and for fibrous composite materials is demonstrated by examples of already existing technical solutions that either parallel biology or are indeed inspired by biological models. The two different basic types of biomimetic approaches are briefly presented and discussed for the "technical plant stem." The technical plant stem is a biomimetic product inspired by a variety of structural and functional properties found in different plants. The most important botanical templates are the stems of the giant reed (Arundo donax, Poaceae) and of the Dutch rush (Equisetum hyemale, Equisetaceae). After analysis of the structural and mechanical properties of these plants, the physical principles have been deduced and abstracted and finally transferred to technical applications. Modern computer-controlled fabrication methods for producing technical textiles and for structuring the embedding matrix of compound materials render unique possibilities for transferring the complex structures found in plants, which often are optimized on several hierarchical levels, into technical applications. This process is detailed for the technical plant stem, a biomimetic, lightweight, fibrous composite material based on technical textiles with optimized mechanical properties and a gradient structure.     

基于天然水凝胶的生物材料在骨组织工程中的应用*

天然水凝胶是指原材料来自于天然生物材料的水凝胶。由于这种天然的聚合物含有构成生物体的天然成分,与天然组织具有生物学和化学相似性,而受到特别关注。天然水凝胶由于其与细胞外基质高度的相似性被认为是骨组织工程中优良的仿生基质材料。而针对天然水凝胶机械性能差、成骨诱导性能弱等缺陷,通常需要对天然水凝胶进行改性、引入其他材料或生物活性因子,以此来获得更适用于骨组织工程支架材料。对近年来基于天然水凝胶的生物材料在骨组织工程的应用,与其不同的应用形式(可注射水凝胶、多孔水凝胶支架、3D生物打印水凝胶支架等)进行了概述,以期对这类基于天然水凝胶的生物材料在未来骨组织工程中的应用提供参考。     

羟基磷灰石/胶原类骨仿生复合材料的制备方法及机理

天然骨除了含有羟基磷灰石无机成分外,还有胶原、糖蛋白等少量的有机成分,这种混杂结构使骨具有独特性能。因此模拟天然骨的形成机制,采用仿生的方法制备羟基磷灰石／胶原类骨材料以再生骨的生物学和力学性能势在必行。本就制备羟基磷灰石／胶原类骨仿生复合材料的方法及体外模拟天然骨生物矿化和材料自组装的形成机制进行了综述。     

Self-healing polymer composites: mimicking nature to enhance performance

Autonomic self-healing materials, where initiation of repair is integral to the material, are being developed for engineering applications. This bio-inspired concept offers the designer an ability to incorporate secondary functional materials capable of counteracting service degradation whilst still achieving the primary, usually structural, requirement. Most materials in nature are themselves self-healing composite materials. This paper reviews the various self-healing technologies currently being developed for fibre reinforced polymeric composite materials, most of which are bioinspired, inspired by observation of nature. The most recent self-healing work has attempted to mimic natural healing through the study of mammalian blood clotting and the design of vascular networks found in biological systems. A perspective on current and future self-healing approaches using this biomimetic technique is offered. The intention is to stimulate debate outside the engineering community and reinforce the importance of a multidisciplinary approach in this exciting field.     

Mineralization regulation and biological influence of bioactive glass-collagen-phosphatidylserine composite scaffolds

Biomimetic scaffolds are appealing products for the repair of bone defects using tissue engineering strategies. In the present study, novel biomimetic composite scaffolds, with similar properties to natural bone, were prepared, blended and cross-linked with bioactive glass, type I collagen and phosphatidylserine. When exposed to cell culture solution in the absence of a cellular source, the composite scaffolds form crystals with octahedral structure. These crystals are similar to the products derived from MC3T3-E1 cell mineralization within the composite scaffolds, with respect to both composition and morphology. Furthermore, crystals with octahedral structure were observed to develop into plate-like hydroxyapatite. The bio-mineralization behavior of the composite scaffolds is likely influenced by inorganic components. Finally, a rabbit tibia defect model shows that the highly bioactive properties of the investigated composites result in excellent bone repair.     

Osteochondral tissue engineering: scaffolds, stem cells and applications

Osteochondral tissue engineering has shown an increasing development to provide suitable strategies for the regeneration of damaged cartilage and underlying subchondral bone tissue. For reasons of the limitation in the capacity of articular cartilage to self-repair, it is essential to develop approaches based on suitable scaffolds made of appropriate engineered biomaterials. The combination of biodegradable polymers and bioactive ceramics in a variety of composite structures is promising in this area, whereby the fabrication methods, associated cells and signalling factors determine the success of the strategies. The objective of this review is to present and discuss approaches being proposed in osteochondral tissue engineering, which are focused on the application of various materials forming bilayered composite scaffolds, including polymers and ceramics, discussing the variety of scaffold designs and fabrication methods being developed. Additionally, cell sources and biological protein incorporation methods are discussed, addressing their interaction with scaffolds and highlighting the potential for creating a new generation of bilayered composite scaffolds that can mimic the native interfacial tissue properties, and are able to adapt to the biological environment.     

Phosphate Glass Fibre Composites for Bone Repair

We investigate high-modulus degradable materials intended to replace metals in biomedical applications.These are typicallycomposites comprising a polylactide(PLA)matrix reinforced with phosphate glass fibres,which provide reinforcementsimilar to E-glass but are entirely degradable in water to produce,principally,calcium phosphate.We have made compositesusing a variety of fibre architectures,from non-woven random mats to unidirectional fibre tapes.Flexural properties in theregion of 30 GPa modulus and 350 MPa strength have been achieved-directly comparable to quoted values for human corticalbone.In collaboration with other groups we have begun to consider the development of foamed systems with structures mimickingcancellous bone and this has shown significant promise.The fibres in these foamed structures provide improved creepresistance and reinforcement of the pore walls.To date the materials have exhibited excellent cellular responses in vitro andfurther studies are due to include consideration of the surface character of the materials and the influence of this on cell interaction,both with the composites and the glass fibres themselves,which show promise as a standalone porous scaffold.     

Advances in biomimetic collagen mineralisation and future approaches to bone tissue engineering

With an ageing world population and ~20% of adults in Europe being affected by bone diseases, there is an urgent need to develop advanced regenerative approaches and biomaterials capable to facilitate tissue regeneration while providing an adequate microenvironment for cells to thrive. As the main components of bone are collagen and apatite mineral, scientists in the tissue engineering field have attempted in combining these materials by using different biomimetic approaches to favour bone repair. Still, an ideal bone analogue capable of mimicking the distinct properties (i.e., mechanical properties, degradation rate, porosity, etc.) of cancellous bone is to be developed. This review seeks to sum up the current understanding of bone tissue mineralisation and structure while providing a critical outlook on the existing biomimetic strategies of mineralising collagen for bone tissue engineering applications, highlighting where gaps in knowledge exist.     

Biomimetic nanosystems and novel composite nanobiomaterials

Biophysicochemical approaches to the solution of nanotechnology problems associated with the design of functional biomimetic nanosystems, hybrid and composite nanobiomaterials and study of their structure-function relationships. The results of studies concerned with physicochemical mechanisms of the formation of organized biomimetic nanostructures and bioinorganic nanomaterials in systems involving a bulky liquid phase and the interface (gas-liquid, solid-liquid, liquid-liquid)during the synthesis and structure formation with the participation of the components of colloid systems, inorganic nanoparticles of various composition and clusters of metals, surfactants, polyelectrolytes and their complexes are discussed. In the development of the methods for the formation of composite bioinorganic nanosystems containing inorganic nanocomponents, two major approaches were used: adsorption and incorporation into the biomolecular matrix or colloid system of presynthesized inorganic nanoparticles, as well as the synthesis of the inorganic nanophase immediately in the biomolecular system. The methods of obtaining biomaterials and nanosystems are based on the principles of biomimetics, biomineralization, self-assembly and self-organization, combination and integration of a number of synthetic and physicochemical methods (physical and chemical adsorption, Langmuir technique, the formation of polycomplexes, chemical linking, competitive interactions, and substitution of ligands in supramolecular and coordination complexes) and nanocomponents of different nature. In particular, a novel approach to the preparation of highly organized nanofilm materials was developed, which is based on the effect of self-assembly and self-organization of colloid nanoparticles during the formation of their complexes with polyfunctional biogenic ligands in the volume of the liquid phase in the absence of any surfaces and interfaces. The physical and chemical factors responsible for the formation of structurally ordered biomolecular and composite nanosystems including nano-sized components of different nature and the possibilities to control the composition, structure, and properties of resulting nanomaterials and nanosystems are discussed. The experimental methods and approaches developed may be useful in studies of structure-property relationships and basic mechanisms of structural organization and transformation at the nanoscales level in biological, artificial, and hybrid nanosystems. The problems of practical application of the synthetic methods and the corresponding nanomaterials are discussed.     

羟基磷灰石/柞蚕丝素（HA/TSF骨仿生纳米纤维的生物学性能研究

目的：柞蚕丝素（tussah silk fibroin,TSF）和羟基磷灰石（hydroxyapatite,HA）均具有良好的生物活性和生物相容性,是组织工程研究的热点i,但结构单一及微米级的材料所表现出的性能简单,不能满足人们对生物材料支架性能的要求,本课题将两者按不同比例进行复合,探讨不同皮芯比例羟基磷灰石／柞蚕丝素（HA／TSF）的骨仿生纳米纤维的生物学性能。方法：首先利用同轴静电纺丝技术,以TSF水溶液为皮,HA水溶液为芯,制备不同皮芯比例的HA／TSF骨仿生纳米纤维,然后将人成骨肉瘤细胞（MG-63）种植在不同皮芯比例的HA／TSF纳米纤维上。在不同的时间点分别通过倒置显微镜、扫描电镜观察细胞形态学变化;通过四甲基偶氮噻唑蓝比色（Four methyl azo thiazole blue colorimetric, MTT）法、碱性磷酸酶（alkaline phosphatase,ALP）活性检测法观察细胞在材料表面的增殖和分化,从多角度来评价材料的生物学性能。结果：通过形态学观察,SEM观察以及MTT检测,发现除空白对照组外,各组样品均显示良好的生物相容性,均能促进细胞的黏附、增殖,尤以HA／TSF为2：1时最明显;通过MG-63细胞的ALP活性检测,发现当HA／TSF比例为2：1时,最能促进细胞ALP活性的表达,有利于诱导成骨细胞的分化。结论：皮芯结构的HA／TSF骨仿生纳米纤维具有良好的生物学性能,且二者在自然界来源丰富,价格便宜,为临床骨组织缺损修复的应用奠定了一定的实验基础     

Carbon fiber reinforced polysulfone--a new implant material

Carbon fibre reinforced polysulfone is a composite material which contains two materials of well known biocompatibility. In comparison to metals this composite material has some advantages which makes it favourable particularly for implants in tumor surgery. The custom made arrangement of fibres in the composite allows the development of implants with special mechanical properties. The radiolucency of the material avoids problems caused by the reflection of x-rays, using metal implants. This special property allows the exact calculation of postoperative radiation doses of tumor patients. Simultaneously the structures behind the implants are not hidden. All implants can be machined during the operation to adapt them to the individual anatomical situation. Animal experimental and clinical applications of plates, screws and spinal segmental replacement implants made of this composite material have shown good results so far.     

Plants as concept generators for biomimetic light-weight structures with variable stiffness and self-repair mechanisms

1 Introduction Over the last few years, plants have proved to be areal treasure trove as models for the construction of bio-logically inspired technical structures and materials [1–5].One ongoing project of the Competence Network ‘Plantsas Concept Generators for Biomimetic Materials andTechnologies’deals with the construction of light-weightstructures with variable stiffness and rapid self-repairmechanisms based on plant structures [6, 7] …     

Interfacial Effects of Superhydrophobic Plant Surfaces： A Review

Nature is a huge gallery of art involving nearly perfect structures and properties over the millions of years of development. Many plants and animals show water-repellent properties with fine micro-structures, such as lotus leaf, water skipper and wings of butterfly. Inspired by these special surfaces, the artificial superhydrophobic surfaces have attracted wide attention in both basic research and industrial applications. The wetting properties of superhydrophobic surfaces in nature are affected by the chemical compositions and the surface topographies. So it is possible to realize the biomimetic superhydrophobic surfaces by tuning their surface roughness and surface free energy correspondingly. This review briefly introduces the physical-chemical basis of superhydrophobic plant surfaces in nature to explain how the superhydrophobicity of plant surfaces can be applied to different biomimetic functional materials with relevance to technological applications. Then, three classical effects of natural surfaces are classified： lotus effect, salvinia effect, and petal effect, and the promising strategies to fabricate biomimetic su- perhydrophobic materials are highlighted. Finally, the prospects and challenges of this area in the future are proposed.     

Plants and Animals as Concept Generators for the Development of Biomimetic Cable Entry Systems

Many animals and plants have high potential to serve as concept generators for developing biomimetic materials and structures. We present some ideas based on structural and functional properties of plants and animals that led to the development of two types ofbiomimetic cable entry systems. Those systems have been realized on the level of functional demonstrators.     

Effect of Thermal Fatigue Loading on Tensile Behavior of H13 Die Steel with Biomimetic Surface

<正> Biomimetic surface is an effective ways to promote the performance grade and applied range of materials without alteringtheir substrate.Many improved properties such as resisting fatigue,enduring wear,etc,have been achieved by applyingbiomimetic morphology or structure to some engineering material surfaces.In this paper,aiming to reveal the relationshipbetween thermal cracking behavior and mechanical properties of engineering materials with biomimetic surface,biomimeticspecimens were fabricated using laser technique by imitating the heterogeneous structure on the surface of plant leaves.Theeffect of thermal fatigue cycling on the tensile properties of H13 die steel specimens with different surfaces (several types ofbiomimetic surfaces and a smooth surface) was compared and investigated.As a result,due to the coupling effects of themorphological features on the surface and the microstructure characteristics within unit zone,these specimens with biomimeticsurface exhibit remarkably enhanced Ultimate Tensile Strength (UTS) and 0.2% Yield Strength (YS) compared with referencespecimens while corresponding ductility remains largely unaffected even heightened,whether the thermal fatigue loads or not.The relative mechanisms leading to these improvements have been discussed.     

Problems of biomimetic chemistry]

The main goals of biomimetic chemistry have been formulated on the basis of the concept of biochemical organization. Biomimetic chemistry is defined as a science which employs the principles of biochemical organization (i. e., the principles of structural organization, functioning and regulation of biological systems at the levels corresponding to biomacromolecules, supramolecular complexes and subcellular structures) for the construction of artificial systems with predetermined properties or for conferring desired properties on natural biochemical systems with the help of artificial elements. The relationships between biomimetics and biochemical modelling are discussed. As examples of biomimetic systems, some enzymes entrapped into hydrated reverse micelles of a surfactant in an organic solvent and conjugates of proteins with polyalkylene oxidases are considered.     

Micromechanics fracture in osteonal cortical bone: a study of the interactions between microcrack propagation, microstructure and the material properties

A two-dimensional micromechanical fibre reinforced composite materials model for osteonal cortical bone is presented. The interstitial bone is modelled as a matrix, the osteons are modelled as fibres, and the cement line is presented as interface tissue. The interaction between osteons and microcracks is evaluated by linear elastic fracture mechanics theory, followed by a determination of the stress intensity factor at the vicinity of the microcrack tips. The results indicate that bone microstructural heterogeneity greatly influences fracture parameters. Furthermore, microstructural morphology and loading conditions affect growth trajectories, the microcrack propagation trajectory deviates from the osteon under tensile loading, and osteon penetration is observed under compressive loads.     

Biomimetic self-assembly of apatite hybrid materials: From a single molecular template to bi-/multi-molecular templates

The self-assembly of apatite and proteins is a critical process to induce the formation of the bones and teeth in vertebrates. Although hierarchical structures and biomineralization mechanisms of the mineralized tissues have been intensively studied, most researches focus on the self-assembly biomimetic route using one single-molecular template, while the natural bone is an outcome of a multi-molecular template co-assembly process. Inspired by such a mechanism in nature, a novel strategy based on multi-molecular template co-assembly for fabricating bone-like hybrid materials was firstly proposed by the authors. In this review article we have summarized the new trends from single-molecular template to bi-/multi-molecular template systems in biomimetic fabrication of apatite hybrid materials. So far, many novel apatite hybrid materials with controlled morphologies and hierarchical structures have been successfully achieved using bi-/multi-molecular template strategy, and are found to have multiple common features in comparison with natural mineralized tissues. The carboxyl, carbonyl and amino groups of the template molecules are identified to initiate the nucleation of calcium phosphate during the assembling process. For bi-/multi-molecular templates, the incorporation of multiple promotion sites for calcium and phosphate ions precisely enables to regulate the apatite nucleation from the early stage. The roles of acidic molecules and the synergetic effects of protein templates have been significantly recognized in recent studies. In addition, a specific attention is paid to self-assembling of apatite nanoparticles into ordered structures on tissue regenerative scaffolds due to their promising clinical applications ranging from implant grafts, coatings to drug and gene delivery.     

Biomimetic Composite Structural T-joints

Biological structural fixed joints exhibit unique attributes,including highly optimized fiber paths which minimize stress concentrations.In addition,since the joints consist of continuous,uncut fiber architectures,the joints enable the organism to transport information and chemicals from one part of the body to the other.To the contrary,sections of man-made composite material structures are often joined using bolted or bonded joints,which involve low strength and high stress concentrations.These methods are also expensive to achieve.Additional functions such as fluid transport,electrical signal delivery,and thermal conductivity across the joints typically require parasitic tubes,wires,and attachment clips.By using the biomimetic methods,we seek to overcome the limitations which are present in the conventional methods. In the present work,biomimetic co-cured composite sandwich T-joints were constructed using unidirectional glass fiber,epoxy resin,and structural foam.The joints were fabricated using the wet lay-up vacuum bag resin infusion method.Foam sandwich T-joints with multiple continuous fiber architectures and sandwich foam thickness were prepared.The designs were tested in quasi-static bending using a mechanical load frame.The significantweight savings using the biomimetic approaches is discussed,as well as a comparison of failure modes versus architecture is described.     

Bioinspired synthesis of multifunctional inorganic and bio-organic hybrid materials

Owing to their physical and chemical properties, inorganic functional materials have tremendous impacts on key technologies such as energy generation and storage, information, medicine, and automotive engineering. Nature, on the other hand, provides evolution-optimized processes, which lead to multifunctional inorganic-bio-organic materials with complex structures. Their formation occurs under physiological conditions, and is goverened by a combination of highly regulated biological processes and intrinsic chemical properties. Nevertheless, insights into the molecular mechanisms of biomineralization open up promising perspectives for bioinspired and biomimetic design and the development of inorganic-bio-organic multifunctional hybrids. Therefore, biomimetic approaches may disclose new synthetic routes under ambient conditions by integrating the concept of gene-regulated biomineralization principles. The skeletal structures of marine sponges provide an interesting example of biosilicification via enzymatically controlled and gene-regulated silica metabolism. Spicule formation is initiated intracellularly by a fine-tuned genetic mechanism, which involves silica deposition in vesicles (silicassomes) under the control of the enzyme silicatein, which has both catalytic and templating functions. In this review, we place an emphasis on the fabrication of biologically inspired materials with silicatein as a biocatalyst.