Toll样受体(TLRs)的信号转导与免疫调节

Toll样受体(Toll-like receptors,TLRs)是进化中比较保守的一个受体家族,至少包括10个成员.TLRs能特异地识别病原相关的分子模式(PAMPs),不仅在激活天然免疫中发挥重要的作用,而且还调节获得性免疫,是连接天然免疫和获得性免疫的桥梁.近年来,TLRs信号转导的研究,特别是在负调控研究领域,进展非常迅速.对TLRs信号通路新进展以及TLRs在抗感染免疫中的作用进行了综述.     

泛素化调控抗病毒天然免疫的研究进展

天然免疫是宿主防御病原微生物入侵的第一道防线,其活化主要通过天然免疫细胞上的模式识别受体(pattern recognition receptors, PRRs)识别病原微生物上相对保守的相关分子模式(pathogen-associated molecular patterns, PAMPs).病毒相关的核酸成分可以被机体Toll样受体(Toll-like receptors, TLRs)、维甲酸诱导基因Ⅰ受体(RIG-I-like receptors, RLRs)以及胞浆DNA受体(cytoplasmic DNA sensors)等识别,通过一系列复杂的细胞信号通路诱导Ⅰ型干扰素(typeⅠinterferon)及炎症因子的表达,从而激发机体抗病毒反应.泛素化修饰是细胞内广泛存在的蛋白质翻译后修饰方式,在宿主防御病原微生物感染的动态调控过程中发挥着重要的作用.已有大量文献报道,天然免疫抗病毒信号通路中的多个关键接头分子可发生泛素化修饰,进而调控机体抗病毒免疫应答反应.本文综述了泛素化修饰在抗病毒天然免疫中的作用及其调控机制.     

鱼类模式识别受体的研究进展

天然免疫（innate immunity）是基于对病原微生物成分的非克隆性识别而启动的快速防御反应。天然免疫系统可通过胚系编码的模式识别受体（pattern-recognition receptors,PRR）识别恒定不变的病原基元,即病原相关分子模式（pathogen-associated molecular patterns,PAMPs）,启动信号级联转导,最终PRRs信号激活宿主免疫和前炎性基因的表达,引发针对所识别病原的免疫反应。目前PRRs主要分为5类,即C-型Lectins、Toll样受体（Toll-like receptors,TLRs）、视黄酸诱导基因I样受体（retinoic acid inducible gene I-like receptors,RLRs）、包含核苷酸结合区和亮氨酸富集区蛋白（the nucleotide-binding domain,leucine-rich repeatcontaining proteins,NLRs,也称NOD样受体）和最近发现的AIM样受体（absent in melanoma（AIM）-like receptors,ALRs）。近年来,随着5种鱼类基因组序列草图的完成,大量鱼类PRRs基因被发现,一些PRRs的配体特异性及其相关信号途径正在逐渐明晰。为此,将对鱼类Toll样受体（TLRs）、视黄酸诱导基因I样受体（RLRs）和NOD样受体（NLRs）的研究进展进行综述。     

病原真菌感染与TOLL样受体

TOLL样受体(TLR)是参与天然免疫的主要模式识别受体之一,与许多微生物病原体及其产物的病原相关分子模式PAMP结合后通过MyD88依赖性或非依赖性途径启动宿主胞内信号传导途径,引发一系列生物学效应。白色念珠菌表面的特征性糖磷脂甘露聚糖可被TLR2、TLR4识别,诱导前炎性细胞因子的释放及促进中性粒细胞的聚集等来介导宿主的抗真菌免疫反应。烟曲霉则可能利用表型转换(酵母样与菌丝态),通过不同TLRs逃避宿主天然免疫系统的识别。新型隐球菌的多糖荚膜成分葡糖醛氧化甘露聚糖GXM可与TLR2、TLR4、CD14结合,在单核细胞、巨噬细胞对GXM的内化、吞噬中起重要作用,而不是诱导细胞因子的分泌;酿酒酵母胞壁成分酵母多糖则可激活TLR2、TLR6异源二聚体。总之,TLR与真菌配体相互作用的具体机制及其活化后胞内信号传导调控机制的深入研究与分析,对临床真菌病的免疫调节及治疗具有重要意义。     

TLR4及其作用的研究进展

Toll样受体(toll-like receptors,TLRs)因其积极的研究成果而成为近年来广受关注的一种病原体识别受体,TLRs分布相对比较广泛,不但在小肠上皮、呼吸上皮细胞表达,同时也在血管内皮细胞、树突状细胞[1]、大鼠脾及心肌细胞[2]等细胞中表达.研究证实,它属于模式识别受体(pattern recognition receptors,PRRs),病原相关分子模式(pathogen-associated molecule pattern,PAMPs)可被其辨别,然后引发一系列的信号转导,TLRs 是备受关注的一种PRRs.Toll样受体4(toll-like receptor 4,TLR4)是TLRs家族中极为重要的成员,是天然免疫系统识别病原微生物的主要受体,在天然免疫反应中扮演着关键性作用.细菌脂多糖(lipopolysaccharide,LPS)作为一类受体,主要作用是介导信号跨膜转导,尤其对革兰氏阴性菌所引起的感染性炎症起着极为关键的作用.由于近年来对TLR4介导的信号转导及TLR4与疾病的关系研究成为热点,本文就TLR4的信号转导、TLR4与LPS的关系及TLR4信号通路调节进行综述如下.     

Toll样受体对病原寄生虫的天然免疫识别

Toll样受体是机体天然免疫系统最重要的模式识别受体之一,通过识别病原寄生虫的病原相关分子模式,活化依赖和非依赖于髓样分化因子88的信号转导通路,诱导干扰素、炎症因子、趋化因子等的表达以及树突状细胞的成熟,抵御病原寄生虫的感染。因此,以下综述了Toll样受体对原病寄生虫,尤其对动物寄生性原虫与蠕虫感染的模式识别与天然免疫应答机制,以进一步理解病原寄生虫与宿主相互作用的复杂性,为寄生虫病的有效防治提供理论参考。     

TLR9介导DNA病毒的免疫识别

Toll样受体(toll-like receptor,TLR)是免疫细胞表面的模式识别受体(patttern recognition receptoi,PRR),参与微生物病原体相关分子模式(pathogen associated molecular patterns,PAMPs)的识别,从而诱导天然免疫应答。迄今在人类已经确定了10个TLRs家族成员。不同的TLRs识别不同的PAMPs,如TLR9是免疫细胞识别病毒和细菌中非甲基化DNA的必需成分;     

TLR9的生物学特性及其在心血管疾病中的研究进展

Toll样受体(toll-like receptors,TLRs)是一类保守的介导固有免疫的跨膜信号传递受体家族,是一种I型跨膜蛋白受体,是模式识别受体(pattern recognition receptor,PRR)中的一员,在识别和抵御各种病原微生物及其产物的过程中发挥重要作用。病原微生物呈现多种真核细胞不具备的特殊的保守结构,称为病原相关分子模式(pathogen associated molecular patterns,PAMPs),这种结构可被PRR所识别,并通过下游的接头蛋白引发转录因子的激活和炎症因子的产生。不同的TLR分子具有各自特异的PAMPs识别谱,其中Toll样受体9(TLR9)是识别细菌来源的非甲基化CpG DNA等PAMPs的受体。TLRs在固有免疫和适应性免疫中发挥着重要作用,并参与多种心血管疾病的发病过程。本文就TLR9的生物学特性及其在心血管疾病中的研究进展进行综述。     

野猪Toll 样受体基因的结构和功能鉴定

Toll样受体(Toll-like receptors,TLRs)是介导天然免疫和获得性免疫的病原模式识别受体(Pattern recognition receptor,PRRs),能识别表达在病原微生物上高度保守的病原相关分子模式(Pathogen associated molecular patterns,PAMPs),并通过一定的信号转导途径引起核内相关基因的表达,启动和调节机体的免疫反应。     

Toll样受体家族与天然免疫

Toll受体是近年来发现的跨膜信号传递受体蛋白,它在哺乳动物,昆虫及植物的信号转导通路中有类似的作用。TLR可选择性识别病原微生物而启动天然免疫,因此,它在宿主的天然免疫中具有重要作用。本文主要对TLR家族的研究进展及其在天然免疫中的作用加以综述。     

Naturally occurring and synthetic constitutive-active cytokine receptors in disease and therapy

Cytokines control immune related events and are critically involved in a plethora of patho-physiological processes including autoimmunity and cancer development. Mutations which cause ligand-independent, constitutive activation of cytokine receptors are quite frequently found in diseases. Many constitutive-active cytokine receptor variants have been directly connected to disease development and mechanistically analyzed. Nature’s solutions to generate constitutive cytokine receptors has been recently adopted by synthetic cytokine receptor biology, with the goal to optimize immune therapeutics. Here, CAR T cell immmunotherapy represents the first example to combine synthetic biology with genetic engineering during therapy. Hence, constitutive-active cytokine receptors are therapeutic targets, but also emerging tools to improve or modulate immunotherapeutic strategies. This review gives a comprehensive insight into the field of naturally occurring and synthetic constitutive-active cytokine receptors.     

Chronic Effects of Xanthines on Levels of Central Receptors in Mice

1.Chronic ingestion of caffeine causes a significant increase in levels of A₁-adenosine, nicotinic and muscarinic receptors, serotonergic receptors, GABA_A receptors and L-type calcium channels in cerebral cortical membranes from mice NIH Swiss strain mice.2.Chronic theophylline and paraxanthine had effects similar to those of caffeine except that levels of L-type channels were unchanged. Chronic theobromine, a weak adenosine antagonist, and 1-isobutyl-3-methylxanthine (IBMX), a potent adenosine antagonist and phosphodiesterase inhibitor, caused only an increase in levels of A₁-adenosine receptors. A combination of chronic caffeine and IBMX had the same effects on receptors as caffeine alone. Chronic 3,7-dimethyl-1-propargylxanthine (DMPX), a somewhat selective A_2A-antagonist, caused only an increase in levels of A₁-adenosine receptors. Pentoxyfylline, an adenosine-uptake inhibitor inactive at adenosine receptors, had no effect on receptor levels or calcium channels.3.A comparison of plasma and brain levels of xanthines indicated that caffeine penetrated more readily and attained somewhat higher brain levels than theophylline or theobromine. Penetration and levels were even lower for IBMX, paraxanthine, DMPX, and pentoxyfylline.4.The results suggest that effective blockade of both A₁ and A_2A-adenosine receptors is necessary for the full spectrum of biochemical changes elicited by chronic ingestion of xanthines, such as caffeine, theophylline, and paraxanthine.     

Quantitative Relationships of Five Putative Neurotransmitter Receptor Sites in Rat Hippocampal Formation

The hippocampus is well suited for studies of the interrelationships of various neurotransmitter systems in the CNS by reason of its simple laminated organization, defined connections, and variety of identified neurotransmitters. We have studied the biochemical and pharmacological properties of five radiolabeled ligand binding sites in a membrane fraction prepared from rat hippocampal formation. These binding sites are thought to identify recognition sites for neurotransmitter receptors. The rank order of ligand binding sites is [³H]muscimol > [³H]quinuclidinyl benzilate > [³Hdihydroergocryptine > [³H]dihydroalprenolol > ¹²⁵I-labeled α-bungarotoxin. All ligands have a single, saturable, high-affinity binding site. Pharmacological characterization of the ligand binding sites indicates properties consistent with the identification of these sites as neurotransmitter receptors.     

Electrically evoked release of [(3)H]noradrenaline from mouse cultured sympathetic neurons: release-modulating heteroreceptors

Cultured neurons from the thoracolumbar sympathetic chain of newborn mice are known to possess release-inhibiting alpha(2)-autoreceptors. The present study was carried out in a search for release-modulating heteroreceptors on these neurons. Primary cultures were preincubated with [(3)H]noradrenaline and then superfused and stimulated by single pulses, trains of 8 pulses at 100 Hz, or trains of 36 pulses at 3 Hz. The cholinergic agonist carbachol reduced the evoked overflow of tritium. Experiments with antagonists indicated that the inhibition was mediated by M(2) muscarinic receptors. The cannabinoid agonist WIN 55,212-2 reduced the evoked overflow of tritium through CB(1) receptors. Prostaglandin E(2), sulprostone, and somatostatin also caused presynaptic inhibition. The inhibitory effects of carbachol, WIN 55,212-2, prostaglandin E(2), and somatostatin were abolished (at the highest concentration of WIN 55, 212-2 almost abolished) by pretreatment of the cultures with pertussis toxin (250 ng/ml). Several drugs, including the beta(2)-adrenoceptor agonist salbutamol, opioid receptor agonists, neuropeptide Y, angiotensin II, and bradykinin, failed to change the evoked overflow of tritium. These results demonstrate a distinct pattern of presynaptic inhibitory heteroreceptors, all coupled to pertussis toxin-sensitive G proteins. The lack of operation of several presynaptic receptors known to exist in adult mice in situ may be due to the age of the (newborn) donor animals or to the culture conditions.     

Angiotensin II vascular receptors in fetal and neonatal rats

Specific binding sites for angiotensin II in aorta and renal arteries have been studied in rat fetuses (18th day of pregnancy) and 1-day-old newborn rats by binding studies in arterial membranes using [125I] ileu-5-angiotensin II. One type of angiotensin receptor was found both in fetuses and in the newborns; the capacity of this (RT) decreased immediately after birth (from 0.06 +/- 0.01 nM to 0.02 +/- 0.005 nM; +/- SEM) and the affinity (Kd) increased at birth (from 3.5 +/- 0.6 nM to 19.5 +/- 1.2 nM; +/- SEM). Localization of the specific binding sites was studied by autoradiography on arteries from fetal and newborn rats either perfused with iodinated angiotensin II by cannulation of the aorta or in vitro on cryostat sections incubated with the radioactive angiotensin II. Both in fetuses and in the newborn the binding sites were located in the tunica media of the arteries.     

Somatotropic and lactotropic receptors in transgenic mice expressing human or bovine growth hormone genes

The somatotropic and lactotropic receptors were studied in liver microsomal preparations from transgenic mice carrying the human growth hormone (hGH) or bovine growth hormone (bGH) gene fused to mouse metallothionein-I (MT) or phosphoenolpyruvate carboxykinase promoter/regulator (PEPCK). Specificity studies indicated that, similarly to normal mice, liver microsomes from the transgenic animals possess a mixed population of somatotropic and lactotropic binding sites. In transgenic animals of both sexes, the binding capacity of somatotropic receptors was significantly increased without corresponding changes in affinity. Expression of the MT-hGH hybrid gene was associated with the induction of somatotropic receptors which was approximately twice as great as that measured in animals expressing the MT-bGH hybrid gene. The binding capacity of lactotropic receptors in liver microsomes (quantitated, by the use, of labelled ovine prolactin) was increased 2–3 fold in transgenic females and approximately 10-fold in transgenic males as compared to the respective normal controls. We conclude that lifelong excess of GH up-regulates hepatic GH and prolactin receptors, and that lactogenic activity of GH is not essential for induction of prolactin receptors in the liver of transgenic mice.     

γ-Aminobutyric Acid and Benzodiazepine Receptor Changes Induced by Unilateral 6-Hydroxydopamine Lesions of the Medial Forebrain Bundle

Quantitative autoradiography was used to ascertain alterations in [3H]muscimol, [3H]flunitrazepam (FLU), [3H]naloxone, [3H]D-alanine-D-leucine-enkephalin (DADL), and [3H]spiroperidol binding in basal ganglia 1 week, 4 weeks, and 5 months after unilateral 6-hydroxydopamine lesions of the medial forebrain bundle (MFB) in the rat. At 1 and 4 weeks following lesions, [3H]spiroperidol binding increased 33% in striatum. At 5 months, [3H]spiroperidol was only nonsignificantly increased above control. At 1 week, [3H]muscimol binding decreased 39% in ipsilateral globus pallidus (GP), but increased 41% and 11% in entopeduncular nucleus (EPN) and substantia nigra pars reticulata (SNr), respectively. At 4 weeks, [3H]muscimol binding was reduced 19% in striatum and 44% in GP and remained enhanced by 32% in both EPN and SNr. These changes in [3H]muscimol binding persisted at 5 months. [3H]FLU binding was altered in the same direction as [3H]muscimol binding; however, changes were slower in onset and became significant (and remained so) only at 4 weeks after lesions. Decreases in [3H]naloxone and [3H]DADL binding were seen in striatum, GP, EPN, and SNr. Scatchard analyses revealed that only receptor numbers were altered. This study provides biochemical evidence for differential regulation of striatal GABAergic output to GP and EPN/SNr.     

Intrinsic and synaptic properties of neurons in the vocal-control nucleus lMAN from in vitro slice preparations of juvenile and adult zebra finches

A common theme of diverse neural systems is that circuits that are important for initial acquisition of learning do not necessarily serve as a substrate for the long-term storage of that memory. The neural basis of vocal learning in songbirds provides an example of this phenomenon, since a circuit that is necessary for vocal production during initial stages of vocal development apparently plays no subsequent role in controlling learned vocalizations. This striking functional change suggests the possibility of marked physiological changes in synaptic transmission within this circuit. We therefore examined intrinsic and synaptic properties of neurons in the cortical nucleus lMAN (lateral magnocellular nucleus of the anterior neostriatum), which forms part of this developmentally regulated circuit, in an in vitro preparation of the zebra finch forebrain. Although both functional and morphological characteristics of these neurons change substantially during vocal development, we did not observe widespread, substantive changes in the electrophysiological characteristics of juvenile versus adult lMAN neurons examined in vitro. Overall, both the intrinsic properties and synaptic responses of lMAN neurons were similar in slices from juvenile birds (at ages when lesions of lMAN disrupt vocal production) and in slices from adult birds (when lMAN lesions have no effect on song production). However, one intrinsic property that did vary between juvenile and adult cells was spike duration, which was longer in juvenile cells, suggesting the potential for activation of second-messenger cascades and/or enhanced synaptic transmission onto target cells of lMAN neurons. The pattern of synaptic response observed in both juvenile and adult cells suggests that lMAN projection neurons receive direct excitatory afferent inputs, as well as disynaptic inhibitory inputs from interneurons within lMAN. Activation of inhibitory interneurons rapidly curtails the excitatory response seen in projection neurons. This inhibition was abolished by bicuculline, indicating that the inhibitory interneurons normally exert their postsynaptic response via GABA_A receptors on projection neurons. The inhibitory response could also be blocked by CNQX (6-cyano-7-nitroquinoxaline-2,3-dione), suggesting that the activation of inhibitory interneurons within lMAN may be governed primarily by AMPA receptors. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. J Neurobiol 37: 642–658, 1998     

The amphiphilic peptide adenoregulin enhances agonist binding to A1-adenosine receptors and [35S]GTPγS to brain membranes

Summary 1. Adenoregulin is an amphilic peptide isolated from skin mucus of the tree frog,Phyllomedusa bicolor. Synthetic adenoregulin enhanced the binding of agonists to several G-protein-coupled receptors in rat brain membranes.2. The maximal enhancement of agonist binding, and in parentheses, the concentration of adenoregulin affording maximal enhancement were as follows: 60% (20 µM) for A₁-adenosine receptors, 30% (100 µM) for A_2a-adenosine receptors, 20% (2 µM) for ₂-adrenergic receptors, and 30% (100 µM) for 5HT_1A receptors. High affinity agonist binding for A_1-, _2-, and 5HT_1A-receptors was virtually abolished by GTPS in the presence of adenoregulin, but was only partially abolished in its absence. Magnesium ions increased the binding of agonists to receptors and reduced the enhancement elicited by adenoregulin.3. The effect of adenoregulin on binding of N⁶-cyclohexyladenosine ([³H]CHA) to A₁-receptors was relatively slow and was irreversible. Adenoregulin increased the B_max value for [³H]CHA binding sites, and the proportion of high affinity states, and slowed the rate of [³H]CHA dissociation. Binding of the A₁-selective antagonist, [³H]DPCPX, was maximally enhanced by only 13% at 2 µM adenoregulin. Basal and A₁-adenosine receptor-stimulated binding of [³⁵S]GTPS were maximally enhanced 45% and 23%, respectively, by 50 µM adenoregulin. In CHAPS-solubilized membranes from rat cortex, the binding of both [³H]CHA and [³H]DPCPX were enhanced by adenoregulin. Binding of [³H]CHA to membranes from DDT₁ MF-2 cells was maximally enhanced 17% at 20 µM adenoregulin. In intact DDT₁ MF-2 cells, 20 µM adenoregulin did not potentiate the inhibition of cyclic AMP accumulation mediatedvia the adenosine A₁ receptor.4. It is proposed that adenoregulin enhances agonist binding through a mechanism involving enhancement of guanyl nucleotide exchange at G-proteins, resulting in a conversion of receptors into a high affinity state complexed with guanyl nucleotide-free G-protein.