The potential of military training areas for bird conservation in a central European landscape

European biodiversity has suffered from serious declines during the past few decades, with alterations of land use practices resulting in a loss of fine-scale habitat heterogeneity being a dominant driver. This heterogeneity was maintained by extensive landscape management, which has gradually been replaced by either intensive exploitation or land abandonment. It has been suggested that military training can generate habitat heterogeneity that may support the existence of species of conservation concern, but studies rigorously testing the real importance of military training areas for biodiversity are lacking. Here we address this issue by analyses of two datasets. First, we compared land cover classes between all large military training areas (MTAs) and surrounding control areas (CAs) of the same size in the Czech Republic using multivariate redundancy analysis. We found that the difference in land cover between MTAs and CAs was significant and represented the strongest gradient in land cover classes: from various farmland and artificial habitats typical for CAs to forest and scrubland-grassland mosaic typical for MTAs. Second, we selected one of these areas and compared bird species richness between the MTA and the nearby CA using generalized linear mixed effects models. We found that the number of species of conservation concern was significantly higher in the MTA than in the CA. With respect to habitats, bird species richness was significantly higher in the MTA than in the CA for open habitats, but not for forest habitats. Our results are thus consistent with the view that military training creates areas that are different from the surrounding landscape in terms of land cover, and that this difference translates to a suitability for species of conservation concern. It is remarkable that the positive influence of military training is confined to open habitats, which are subject to the most intensive military activities and also suffer the highest degree of deterioration in European landscapes.     

Dynamische Entwicklung des Lebens nach der Kohle

Nature conservation in the post‐mine landscape of Wanninchen: Dynamic development of life after the brown coal production In “Sielmann's Natural Landscape Wanninchen”, located in the Lower Lusatia in the south of Brandenburg, a post‐mine landscape rich in structures and species has evolved since the end of ignite production. Many extremely rare plants, insects, amphibians and birds find their habitats in huge sand dunes, small water bodies and lakes. Dwarf Everlasting, the digger wasp Bembix rostrata, the European Green Toad, the Common Crane, and the Wolf are among the most typical attractions. Constant changes of the landscape and of the species composition are caused by natural succession. In addition, new and unexpected structures emerge sometimes when parts of the landscape subside. The good collaboration of several stakeholders and the land ownership of the Heinz Sielmann Foundation have ensured a high priority for nature conservation in all restorative measures. So a sustainable development of tourism is enhanced as well. There are diverse offerings of nature experiences and environmental education. Because the access to big parts of the landscape is denied under the mining law and associated with danger, there is a high potential for wilderness development without further human influences. However, in some areas the preservation of valuable open‐land habitats is worth considering, as they are destroyed in our intensively used cultural landscape.     

Nature conservation on decommissioned military training areas – German approaches and experiences

Military training areas (MTAs) host high numbers of endangered habitats and species due to their large area, generally low fertilizer and biocide exposure, and a high dynamic of disturbances caused by military training activities. Since the end of the Cold War in the 1990s, thousands of former military properties have been closed due to international disarmament agreements. Based on a literature review, we present the importance of decommissioned MTAs in Germany for nature conservation, their number, area, and status, as well as the German approaches and experiences managing these sites. More than 119,000 ha of former military areas of high conservation value were transferred by the Federal Government to German Federal States, the German Federal Environmental Foundation, and other nature conservation organizations as part of the so-called National Nature Heritage (NNH), and an additional 60,000 ha were saved in other ways. It is a big challenge in nature conservation to establish appropriate management systems to maintain the endangered habitats and species on these sites, most of which are contaminated with unexploded ordnance (UXO). Several projects have been implemented in Germany to develop strategies to deal with UXO contamination. We discuss management options, from prescribed burning on UXO contaminated sites to the establishment of wilderness, in the light of the requirements of the European Union’s Natura 2000 network of protected areas.     

Assessing Conservation Action for Substitution of Missing Dynamics on Former Military Training Areas in Central Europe

Disproportionately large numbers of threatened and endangered species and unusually high biodiversity have been documented on former military training areas. However, throughout the world, nature protection areas on former military grounds are faced with the dilemma of preserving ecosystems that must change. In central Europe, many of these areas are characterized by dry acidic grasslands on sandy soils. However, these resource-limited ecosystems are faced with two interacting threats: missing disturbance dynamics and increasing atmospheric nitrogen deposition from urban agglomerations. The goal of this study was to assess the effectiveness of conservation action for substitution of missing dynamics. Impacts on plant species assembly, performance of functional groups, soil nutrient availability, and successional trajectory are analyzed. Of particular concern is mimicking beneficial effects of military maneuver on pioneer species such as Corynephorus canescens , which is endangered in many countries. In a controlled field experiment, we manipulated mechanical disturbances representing conservation measures—harrowing, topsoil removal, tilling, and tank driving. Our findings suggest that only topsoil removal and tank driving effectively remove organic material and create self-sustaining vegetation dynamics. Topsoil removal affects both filters in community assembly: the abiotic filter related to soil resources and the biotic filter related to competition between species. We further demonstrate that plant functional groups based on growth form show different rates of recruitment after disturbance with graminoids-dominating initial dynamics. This study provides basic information on effective conservation strategies for dry acidic grasslands on former military training areas.     

Heizen mit Orchideen. Projekt “Prograss” nutzt artenreiche Wiesen zur Energieerzeugung

Heating with orchids Species‐rich meadows in Germany and Europe are highly threatened habitats. For conservation of these habitats regular cutting is necessary to prevent the invasion of high‐growing woody plants which otherwise would rule out the sun‐loving meadow species. However, due to a low energy content the extracted biomass is not well suitable for modern agricultural use or conventional energy production. Currently, scientists of the University of Kassel apply a new procedure which converts the species‐rich biomass into solid fuel for thermal combustion. During this process the extracted plant fluids are fermented to biogas, whereas the solid plant remains are pressed to pellets. In this manner the scientists intend to contribute to nature and climate protection as well as to an additional income for farmers.     

Bird communities of natural and modified habitats in Panama

Only a small proportion of land can realistically be protected as nature reserves and thus conservation efforts also must focus on the ecological value of agroecosystems and developed areas surrounding nature reserves. In this study, avian communities were surveyed in 11 habitat types in central Panama, across a gradient from extensive forest to intensive agricultural land uses, to examine patterns of species richness and abundance and community composition. Wooded habitats, including extensive and fragmented forests, shade coffee plantations, and residential areas supported the most species and individuals. Nearctic-Neotropical migratory species were most numerous in lowland forest fragments, shade coffee, and residential areas. Introduced Pinus caribbea and sugar cane plantations supported the fewest species compared to all other habitats. Cattle pastures left fallow for less than two years supported more than twice as many total species as actively grazed pastures, such that species richness in fallow pastures was similar to that found in wooded habitats. Community similarities were relatively low among all habitat types (none exceeding the observed 65% similarity between extensive and fragmented lowland forests), but communities in shade coffee and residential areas were 43% and 54′% similar to lowland forest fragments, respectively. Fallow pastures and residential areas shared 60% of their species. Bird communities in shade coffee and residential areas were characterized by higher proportions of frugivorous and nectarivorous species than in native forests. These same guilds also were better represented in fallow than in grazed pastures. Raptors and piscivorous species were most prevalent in cattle pastures and rice fields. These results, though based upon only species richness and abundance, demonstrate that many human-altered habitats have potential ecological value for birds, and conservation efforts in tropical areas should focus greater attention on enhancement of agricultural and developed lands as wildlife habitat. To understand the true conservation value of these modified lands will require examination not only of numbers but also of the types of species supported by these habitats, their reproductive output and survival rates.     

Management-driven evolution in a domesticated ecosystem

Millennia of human land-use have resulted in the widespread occurrence of what have been coined ‘domesticated ecosystems’. The anthropogenic imprints on diversity, composition, structure and functioning of such systems are well documented. However, evolutionary consequences of human activities in these ecosystems are enigmatic. Calluna vulgaris (L.) is a keystone species of coastal heathlands in northwest Europe, an ancient semi-natural landscape of considerable conservation interest. Like many species from naturally fire-prone ecosystems, Calluna shows smoke-adapted germination, but it is unclear whether this trait arose prior to the development of these semi-natural landscapes or is an evolutionary response to the anthropogenic fire regime. We show that smoke-induced germination in Calluna is found in populations from traditionally burnt coastal heathlands but is lacking in naturally occurring populations from other habitats with infrequent natural fires. Our study thus demonstrates evolutionary imprints of human land-use in semi-natural ecosystems. Evolutionary consequences of historic anthropogenic impacts on wildlife have been understudied, but understanding these consequences is necessary for informed conservation and ecosystem management.     

Conserving what,where and how? Cost-efficient measures to conserve biodiversity in Denmark

Biodiversity conservation efforts in Europe have traditionally focused on farmland and open nature areas such as grasslands, heathlands and meadows, while little attention has been devoted to conservation actions in forest. Using detailed information on the geographical distribution of about 900 terrestrial species in Denmark we apply systematic conservation planning techniques to identify how to protect biodiversity at the lowest cost to society. The results suggest that conservation actions in forest should be given a higher priority. Thus, three to four times the number of forest species are protected per million € compared with species living in open land natural areas. Furthermore, a gap analysis finds the current designation of Natura 2000 and other protected areas is skewed toward open land natural areas, and insufficient to meet the conservation targets on forest species.     

A rapid and cost-effective tool for managing habitats of the European Natura 2000 network: a case study in the Italian Alps

“Habitats” Directive 92/43/EEC is the pivotal European law for building a continental network of sites of community importance (SCIs) for nature conservation. Article 6 of such directive underlines the importance of biodiversity conservation through the realization of proper management plans. As a result, such plans are increasingly common. A management plan based on intensive field studies and monitoring activities requires time and financial resources, which are generally limited. The aim of this paper is to offer a rapid, cost-effective and scientifically based decision tool aimed to achieve GIS-based conservation strategies for habitats of EU interest within SCIs and, in general, within protected areas. As a case study, we considered species-rich Nardus grasslands (threatened by natural reconversion and intensive cattle grazing), and transition mires (threatened by pasturing and human disturbance) in a SCI in the Alps. Through a multi-criteria evaluation, we selected indicators and weights based upon our knowledge of the study area. As a result, we were able to: (a) quantify the level of existing threats, (b) suggest urgent conservation strategies, and (c) suggest future monitoring activities. Since the study area is representative of many protected areas in the Alps and the conservation topics under evaluation are frequent threats impacting habitats of EU interest, our decision model might be transferable to further areas given proper adaptation of weights to the intensity and the frequency of current threats.     

Ground spider assemblages as indicators for habitat structure in inland sand ecosystems

Open inland sand ecosystems harbour a specialised flora and fauna and are among the most endangered habitats in Central Europe. Land-use changes and lack of habitat dynamics are acknowledged as significant drivers for habitat loss and degradation. It is imperative for nature conservation to obtain criteria such as community structure and biodiversity of model groups to assess the conservation value of threatened habitats. By investigating the correlation between ground spider assemblages and habitat structure, the study aimed to find out the indicator potential of spiders in order to promote conservation objectives and management strategies for open inland sand ecosystems. Non-metric multidimensional scaling revealed four habitat groups with distinct spider assemblages that clearly reflected the whole variety of habitat structure types within the study area. Species distribution was constrained by biotic and abiotic gradients while the ecological traits of spiders differed significantly among the groups. Generalised linear models showed that abundances of particular species were significantly correlated with environmental factors and habitat structure, making them thus suitable as focal species to assess natural habitat modifications as well as success of management efforts. Based on these findings, we derived major aims for successful habitat management of inland sand ecosystems taking into account also the needs of arthropod conservation. Management should include both small and large reserves when aiming for higher levels of disturbance, and sand dynamics to prevent increasing scrub encroachment and to create a larger number of early succession stages.     

Prescribed burning of northern heathlands: <Emphasis Type="Italic">Calluna</Emphasis> <Emphasis Type="Italic">vulgaris</Emphasis> germination cues and seed-bank dynamics

The European coastal heathlands are important habitats for international conservation. Today, these low-intensity farming systems are threatened by the cessation of traditional management regimes, such as grazing and prescribed burning. In natural systems, the effects of fire on germination responses are often explained by adaptation to fire over extended periods of time. However, Northern heathlands are semi-natural systems with only a limited fire history. We investigated whether and how the keystone species in this system, Calluna vulgaris, responded to prescribed burning, based on previous findings where Calluna germinable seed-bank densities showed a pronounced peak right after fire. Our main findings were (i) an ecophysiological response to smoke; (ii) a potential explanation for this pattern, revealed by a seed-bank experiment where we managed to re-create the germination pattern experimentally by using an aqueous plant-derived smoke solution; and (iii) a history of anthropogenic use of fire and the development of heathlands in the region documented through palaeoecological investigations.     

Abandoned military training sites are an overlooked refuge for at-risk open habitat bird species

The European landscape is under pervasive attack of massive land use changes, such as agricultural intensification, urbanization and land abandonment. These changes resulted in population decline of birds living in open habitats. Despite a good understanding on the effects of these driving forces on bird populations, effective conservation actions are difficult to conduct as these forces are closely connected with socioeconomic development of particular countries and thus almost impossible to reverse. It is hence necessary to conserve refuge sites with a limited influence of these negative factors. We surveyed birds in 42 abandoned military training sites (AMTS) in a central European country, the Czech Republic, and we have found these sites are valuable, and to date overlooked, refuges for bird conservation. Birds of high conservation concern and open habitats birds (such as Miliaria calandra, Saxicola torquata or Lullula arborea) were more abundant in AMTS than predicted by their total population size in the Czech Republic. The most important characteristics predicting attractiveness of AMTS for birds of conservation concern were low altitude, low proportion of forest/dense scrubland, high proportion of sparse scrubland/bare ground and large area. Former military activity was beneficial for declining open habitat birds by maintaining moderate disturbance levels, which are rarely found elsewhere in current landscapes. Owing to reduction of armed forces across Europe AMTS provide continental-wide network of high-quality sites for bird conservation. Nevertheless, AMTS are subject to pressure from building activities or loss of openness due to overgrowth of forest or scrub plant communities.     

Conservation of New Zealand's tussock grassland moth fauna

New Zealand has a relatively rich moth fauna associated with tussock grasslands, reflecting the historic importance of plant communities containing native grasses in the New Zealand landscape. Extensive grassland communities were most common in the eastern and central regions of New Zealand’s South Island where what now remains of these communities is contained within more than 350 Pastoral Leases managed for pastoral farming. Because these various grassland communities are distributed from coastal areas to the limit of vegetation on mountains there has been an uneven human impact. Grasslands at sea-level (including those on sand dunes and alluvial plains) have almost been eliminated while those in montane valleys have until now escaped intensive development. Alpine grasslands, like those of montane areas are now much less woody as a result of both Polynesian and more recent burning. From the late 1970s, based on public concern that continuing development was eliminating the natural landscapes and conservation values of the distinctive tussock grasslands of the South Island, a concerted programme of identification of the broad conservation values of the remaining grassland dominated regions was initiated. Implementation of the recommendations in the resulting published reports relating to priority areas for conservation and the subsequent full-scale review of Pastoral Leases has resulted in the formation of large grassland Conservation Parks and the reservation of a multitude of smaller areas, based on a suite of recreation, landscape and biological values. This important ongoing Tenure Review process has important implications for the conservation of tussock grassland biota including numerous native moths and their habitats.     

Agroforestry: a refuge for tropical biodiversity?

As rates of deforestation continue to rise in many parts of the tropics, the international conservation community is faced with the challenge of finding approaches which can reduce deforestation and provide rural livelihoods in addition to conserving biodiversity. Much of modern-day conservation is motivated by a desire to conserve 'pristine nature' in protected areas, while there is growing recognition of the long-term human involvement in forest dynamics and of the importance of conservation outside protected areas. Agroforestry -- intentional management of shade trees with agricultural crops -- has the potential for providing habitats outside formally protected land, connecting nature reserves and alleviating resource-use pressure on conservation areas. Here we examine the role of agroforestry systems in maintaining species diversity and conclude that these systems can play an important role in biodiversity conservation in human-dominated landscapes.     

Vegetation change in acidic dry grasslands in Moravia (Czech Republic) over three decades: Slow decrease in habitat quality after grazing cessation

Aims

Shallow soils on acidic bedrock in dry areas of Central Europe support dry grasslands and heathlands that were formerly used as extensive pastures. These habitats are of high conservation value, but their abandonment in the 20th century triggered slow natural succession that poses a threat to specialized plant species. We asked how this vegetation and its plant diversity have changed over the past three decades and whether protected areas have positively affected habitat quality.

Location

Southwestern and central Moravia, Czech Republic.

Methods

In 2018–2019, we resurveyed 94 vegetation plots first sampled in 1986–1991 at 47 acidic dry grassland and heathland sites. We compared the number of all vascular plant species, Red List species and alien species per plot using parametric and non-parametric tests, life-form spectra using the chi-square test, species composition using detrended correspondence analysis, and indicator values using a permutation test. We also compared these changes between sites within and outside protected areas.

Results

Vegetation changes over the past three decades have been relatively small. However, we detected a decrease in total species richness, the number of Red List species and the number of characteristic species of dry grasslands. Neophytes were infrequent, while archaeophytes increased slightly. The competitive tall grass Arrhenatherum elatius, annual species and young woody plants increased in abundance or newly established at many sites. Indicator values did not change except for a slight increase in nutrient values. These negative trends occurred both within and outside protected areas but were more pronounced outside.

Conclusions

Formerly grazed acidic dry grasslands and heathlands in Moravia are slowly losing habitat specialists, including threatened plant species, and are increasingly dominated by Arrhenatherum elatius. Conservation management, especially cutting in protected areas, slows down the negative trends of decline in plant diversity and habitat quality but is insufficient to halt these processes completely.     

沙区植物多样性保护研究进展

沙区景观表现为沙丘和低地交错分布.沙区常具独特的植物区系,含有特有和稀有植物.沙区植物丰富度降低和特有(稀有)植物消失问题近些年已受到很大关注,被列入国际生物多样性保护计划,很多国家和地区都对此开展了专门的研究.本文以近期发表的文献为基础,从植物多样性保护问题的提出、植物多样性形成机制、植物多样性保护途径、植物多样性研究与生态学理论的发展等方面论述了沙区植物多样性保护及其研究进展.沙区植物多样性保护应注意植物多样性保护目标的地域间差异(维持沙丘上的高植物丰富度还是保护特有或稀有植物)、流沙固定-植物多样性保护间的均衡、"植物多样性保护的量(高的植物丰富度)-质(特有或稀有植物出现)"间的均衡.还应将沙丘体和丘间低地视为一个统一体,研究干扰和生境破碎化对植物多样性造成的影响.     

Frog species richness, composition and beta-diversity in coastal Brazilian restinga habitats.

We studied the species richness and composition of frogs in 10 restinga habitats (sand dune environments dominated by herbaceous and shrubby vegetation) along approximately 1500 km of coastal areas of three Brazilian States: Rio de Janeiro (Grumari, Maricá, Massambaba, Jurubatiba and Grussaí), Espírito Santo (Praia das Neves and Setiba) and Bahia (Prado and Trancoso). We estimated beta-diversity and similarity among areas and related these parameters to geographic distance between areas. All areas were surveyed with a similar sampling procedure. We found 28 frog species belonging to the families Hylidae, Microhylidae, Leptodactylidae and Bufonidae. Frogs in restingas were in general nocturnal with no strictly diurnal species. The richest restinga was Praia das Neves (13 species), followed by Grussaí and Trancoso (eight species in each). The commonest species in the restingas was Scinax alter (found in eight restingas), followed by Aparasphenodon brunoi (seven areas). Our data shows that richness and composition of frog communities vary consistently along the eastern Brazilian coast and, in part, the rate of species turnover is affected by the distance among areas. Geographic distance explained approximately 12% of species turnover in restingas and about 9.5% of similarity among frog assemblages. Although geographic distance somewhat affects frog assemblages, other factors (e.g. historical factors, disturbances) seem to be also involved in explaining present frog assemblage composition in each area and species turnover among areas. The frog fauna along restinga habitats was significantly nested (matrix community temperature = 26.13 degrees; p = 0.007). Our data also showed that the most hospitable restinga was Praia das Neves and indicated that this area should be protected as a conservation unit. Frog assemblage of each area seems to partially represent a nested subset of the original assemblage, although we should not ignore the importance of historical factors. This nestedness pattern, in part, probably results from the intensive fragmentation of restinga habitats. Possibly, many frog species may have been lost in some studied areas as a result of the extensive habitat degradation to which restinga habitats are presently exposed.     

Spider communities as evaluation tools for wet heathland restoration

Over the last two centuries wet heathlands and associated habitats, such as poor fens and bogs, have suffered extensive fragmentation. Recently, large-scale projects aim to restore these rare habitats throughout Europe. To evaluate post-restoration trajectories of wet heathlands, suitable monitoring tools are urgently needed. Here, we investigated whether spider communities are useful tools for evaluating the restoration success of wet heathlands. Ordination revealed that dissimilarity in spider communities between patches of different age classes resulted mainly from vegetation cover and soil moisture. By using a functional trait-approach, we tested if the time since restoration affects trait distribution of spiders in wet heathlands. Typical wet heathland spider species were less common with increasing vegetation encroachment and lower water content. New patches were inhabited by summer active, eurytopic (non-heathland) spiders, while more typical heathland species were found in middle-aged and old patches. Our results suggest that time-related changes in vegetation structure and moistness of restored wet heathlands are clearly reflected by spider communities. Although mobile spiders quickly recolonize the restored heathlands, it takes time for typical heathland spiders to settle. Restoration measures should prevent the negative effects of a vegetation encroachment and a high density of forested edges and should rehabilitate the hydrological cycle in order to preserve rare heathland spiders. We discuss that accounting for responses of spiders provides additional information to guide wet heathlands restoration.     

Sand pits as habitats for beetles (Coleoptera): does area affect species number and composition?

Species living in open sandy habitats are declining in northern Europe because of habitat loss and degradation. However, mining of sand creates potential new habitats for these species in the form of sand pits. In this study we investigated the beetle fauna in sand pits in order to determine what kind of sand pits are the most valuable for conservation, in terms of sand pit area (primarily) and the proportion of sand material, vegetation cover, tree cover and edge habitats. Thirteen sand pits in Uppsala County, Sweden, ranging in size from 0.02 to 18 ha, were included in this study. A total of 2,500 individuals of beetles, belonging to 256 species, were sampled by pitfall traps. Thirty-nine of the species were classified as specialized sand-dwelling species and two were Swedish Red List species. We found that the area of sand pits affects both species number and species composition of beetles. A positive species-area relationship was found, best explained by a quadratic power function, for the habitat-specific species (i.e., sand species). Our recommendation is to prioritize sand pits with areas between 0.3 and 5 ha, with preference towards the lower end of this range, for conserving sand-dwelling beetles.