The interaction of neurotoxin derivatives with either acetylcholine receptor or a monoclonal antibody. An electron-spin-resonance study

Five derivatives of Naja nigricollis toxin alpha, spin-labeled on a single amino group, were prepared. The toxin derivatives were purified to homogeneity by ion-exchange and high-pressure liquid chromatographies. The modified amino groups are localized at residue 1 and lysines 15, 27, 47 and 51. Competition data show that incorporation of spin label at residues 27 or 47 reduces the affinity of the toxin for the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (AcChR), while incorporation at residues 1 or 15 diminishes toxin affinity for a monoclonal toxin-specific immunoglobulin (M alpha 1). Classical and/or saturation transfer electron spin resonance (ESR) analysis was carried out on each derivative, either in the free state or bound to AcChR or M alpha 1. The data obtained give the following indications. In the free state, the nitroxides incorporated at residues 1, 15, 47 and 51 have their own rapid motion, while that at residue 27 had no residual mobility and reflects the toxin rotation. Binding of AcChR to the toxin reduces the motion of the nitroxide bound to Lys47. Binding of M alpha 1 to the toxin immobilizes the two nitroxides fixed on residues 1 and 15. ESR spectra show that Lys27-bound nitroxide remains immobilized upon binding of either AcChR or M alpha 1. The change in nitroxide immobilization observed upon AcChR or M alpha 1 binding correlates well with the variation of nitroxide accessibility to a water-soluble paramagnetic N2+i ion. Binding of the labeled Lys47 toxin derivative to AcChR yields a complex ESR signal, disclosing the existence of a physical difference between the two toxin binding sites on AcChR. All the data indicate that AcChR and M alpha 1 bind at two topographically distinct sites on the toxin surface.     

Structural and functional differences of two toxins from the scorpion Pandinus imperator

The Pandinotoxins, PiTX-K alpha and PiTX-K beta, are members of the Charybdotoxin family of scorpion toxins that can be used to characterize K+ channels. PiTX-K alpha differs from PiTX-K beta, another peptide from Pandinus imperator, by one residue (P10E). When the two toxins are compared in a physiological assay, the affinity of PiTX-K beta for voltage-gated, rapidly inactivating K+ channels in dorsal root ganglia (DRG) neurons is 800-fold lower than that of PiTX-K alpha (K alpha-IC50 = 8.0 nM versus K beta-IC50 = 6,500 nM). To understand this difference, the three-dimensional structure of PiTX-K beta was determined by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy and compared to that of PiTX-K alpha. This comparison shows that structural differences between the two toxins occur at a residue that is critical for blocking K+ channels (K27) as well as at the site of the natural mutation (P10E). In PiTX-K beta, the negatively charged carboxylate oxygen of E10 can approach the positive charge of K27 and presumably reduces the net positive charge in this region of the toxin. This is likely the reason why PiTX-K beta binds K+ channels from DRG neurons with a much lower affinity than does PiTX-K alpha.     

Structure-function relationship in the binding of snake neurotoxins to the torpedo membrane receptor.

The Cys30-Cus34 bridge present in all long neutotoxins (71-74 amino acids, 5 disulfide bridges), but not in short toxins (60-63 amino acids, 4 disulfide bridges), is exposed at the surface since it can be reduced rapidly and selectively by sodium borohydride. Reduction and alkylation of the Cys30-Cys34 bridge of Naja haje neurotoxin III hardly alter the conformational properties of this model long toxin. Although alkylation by iodoacetic acid of th -SH groups liberated by reduction abolishes the toxicity, alkylation by iodoacetamide or ethylenimine does not affect the curarizing efficacy of the toxin. The Cys30-Cys34 bridge is not very important for the toxic activity of long neurotoxins. Reduction of the Cys30-Cys34 bridge followed by alkylation with radioactive iodoacetamide gave a labeled and active toxin which is a convenient derivative for binding experiments to the toxin receptor in membranes of the Torpedo electric organ. The binding capacity of these membrane is 1200 pmol of toxin/mg of membrane protein. The dissociation constant of the modified toxin-receptor complex at pH 7.4, 20 degrees is 10 minus 8m. Reduction with carbroxamidomethylation of the Cys30-Cys34 bridge decreases the affinity of the native Naja haje toxin only by a factor of 15. Carboxymethylation after reduction prevents binding to the membrane receptor. The binding properties of the derivative obtained by reduction and aminoethylation of Cys30-Cys34 are very similar to those of native neurotoxin III; the affinity is decreased only by a factor of 5. Binding properties to Toredo membrane of long neurotoxins (Naja haje neurotoxin III) and short neurotoxins (Naje haje toxin I and Naja mossambica toxin I) have been compared. Dissociation constants of receptor-long neurotoxin and receptor-short neurotoxin complexes are very similar (5.7 minus 8.2 times 10(-10) M at pH 7.4, 20degrees. However, the kinetics of complex formation and complex dissociation are quite different. Short neurotoxins associate 6-7 times faster with the toxin receptor and dissociate about 5-9 times faster that long neurotoxins. Acetylation and dansylation of Lys53 and Lys 27 decrease the affinity of long and short toxins for their receptor by a factor of about 200 at pH 7.4, 20 degrees, mainly because of the slower rate of association with the receptor.     

Chemical engineering of a three-fingered toxin with anti-alpha7 neuronal acetylcholine receptor activity

Though it possesses four disulfide bonds the three-fingered fold is amenable to chemical synthesis, using a Fmoc-based method. Thus, we synthesized a three-fingered curaremimetic toxin from snake with high yield and showed that the synthetic and native toxins have the same structural and biological properties. Both were characterized by the same 2D NMR spectra, identical high binding affinity (K(d) = 22 +/- 5 pM) for the muscular acetylcholine receptor (AChR) and identical low affinity (K(d) = 2.0 +/- 0.4 microM) for alpha7 neuronal AchR. Then, we engineered an additional loop cyclized by a fifth disulfide bond at the tip of the central finger. This loop is normally present in longer snake toxins that bind with high affinity (K(d) = 1-5 nM) to alpha7 neuronal AchR. Not only did the chimera toxin still bind with the same high affinity to the muscular AchR but also it displayed a 20-fold higher affinity (K(d) = 100 nM) for the neuronal alpha7 AchR, as compared with the parental short-chain toxin. This result demonstrates that the engineered loop contributes, at least in part, to the high affinity of long-chain toxins for alpha7 neuronal receptors. That three-fingered proteins with four or five disulfide bonds are amenable to chemical synthesis opens new perspectives for engineering new activities on this fold.     

Looking over toxin-K(+) channel interactions. Clues from the structural and functional characterization of α-KTx toxin Tc32, a Kv1.3 channel blocker

α-KTx toxin Tc32, from the Amazonian scorpion Tityus cambridgei, lacks the dyad motif, including Lys27, characteristic of the family and generally associated with channel blockage. The toxin has been cloned and expressed for the first time. Electrophysiological experiments, by showing that the recombinant form blocks Kv1.3 channels of olfactory bulb periglomerular cells like the natural Tc32 toxin, when tested on the Kv1.3 channel of human T lymphocytes, confirmed it is in an active fold. The nuclear magnetic resonance-derived structure revealed it exhibits an α/β scaffold typical of the members of the α-KTx family. TdK2 and TdK3, all belonging to the same α-KTx 18 subfamily, share significant sequence identity with Tc32 but diverse selectivity and affinity for Kv1.3 and Kv1.1 channels. To gain insight into the structural features that may justify those differences, we used the recombinant Tc32 nuclear magnetic resonance-derived structure to model the other two toxins, for which no experimental structure is available. Their interaction with Kv1.3 and Kv1.1 has been investigated by means of docking simulations. The results suggest that differences in the electrostatic features of the toxins and channels, in their contact surfaces, and in their total dipole moment orientations govern the affinity and selectivity of toxins. In addition, we found that, regardless of whether the dyad motif is present, it is always a Lys side chain that physically blocks the channels, irrespective of its position in the toxin sequence.     

Kinetic basis for insensitivity to tetrodotoxin and saxitoxin in sodium channels of canine heart and denervated rat skeletal muscle

The single-channel blocking kinetics of tetrodotoxin (TTX), saxitoxin (STX), and several STX derivatives were measured for various Na-channel subtypes incorporated into planar lipid bilayers in the presence of batrachotoxin. The subtypes studied include Na channels from rat skeletal muscle and rat brain, which have high affinity for TTX/STX, and Na channels from denervated rat skeletal muscle and canine heart, which have about 20-60-fold lower affinity for these toxins at 22 degrees C. The equilibrium dissociation constant of toxin binding is an exponential function of voltage (e-fold per 40 mV) in the range of -60 to +60 mV. This voltage dependence is similar for all channel subtypes and toxins, indicating that this property is a conserved feature of channel function for batrachotoxin-activated channels. The decrease in binding affinity for TTX and STX in low-affinity subtypes is due to a 3-9-fold decrease in the association rate constant and a 4-8-fold increase in the dissociation rate constant. For a series of STX derivatives, the association rate constant for toxin binding is approximately an exponential function of net toxin charge in membranes of neutral lipids, implying that there is a negative surface potential due to fixed negative charges in the vicinity of the toxin receptor. The magnitude of this surface potential (-35 to -43 mV at 0.2 M NaCl) is similar for both high- and low-affinity subtypes, suggesting that the lower association rate of toxin binding to toxin-insensitive subtypes is not due to decreased surface charge but rather to a slower protein conformational step. The increased rates of toxin dissociation from insensitive subtypes can be attributed to the loss of a few specific bonding interactions in the binding site such as loss of a hydrogen bond with the N-1 hydroxyl group of neosaxitoxin, which contributes about 1 kcal/mol of intrinsic binding energy.     

Specificity of the basic side chains of Lys114, Lys125, and Arg129 of antithrombin in heparin binding

The anticoagulant polysaccharide heparin binds and activates the plasma proteinase inhibitor antithrombin through a pentasaccharide sequence. Lys114, Lys125, and Arg129 are the three most important residues of the inhibitor for pentasaccharide binding. To elucidate to what extent another positively charged side chain can fulfill the role of each of these residues, we have mutated Lys114 and Lys125 to Arg and Arg129 to Lys. Lys114 could be reasonably well replaced with Arg with only an approximately 15-fold decrease in pentasaccharide affinity, in contrast to an approximately 10(5)-fold decrease caused by substitution with an noncharged amino acid of comparable size. However, a loss of approximately one ionic interaction on mutation to Arg indicates that the optimal configuration of the network of basic residues of antithrombin that together interact with the pentasaccharide requires a Lys in position 114. Replacement of Lys125 with Arg caused an even smaller, approximately 3-fold, decrease in pentasaccharide affinity, compared with that of approximately 400-fold caused by mutation to a neutral amino acid. An Arg in position 125 is thus essentially equivalent to the wild-type Lys in pentasaccharide binding. Substitution of Arg129 with Lys decreased the pentasaccharide affinity an appreciable approximately 100-fold, a loss approaching that of approximately 400-fold caused by substitution with a neutral amino acid. Arg is thus specifically required in position 129 for high-affinity pentasaccharide binding. This requirement is most likely due to the ability of Arg to interact with other residues of antithrombin, primarily, Glu414 and Thr44, in a manner that appropriately positions the Arg side chain for keeping the pentasaccharide anchored to the activated state of the inhibitor.     

A subfamily of acidic alpha-K(+) toxins

Three homologous acidic peptides have been isolated from the venom of three different Parabuthus scorpion species, P. transvaalicus, P. villosus, and P. granulatus. Analysis of the primary sequences reveals that they structurally belong to subfamily 11 of short chain alpha-K(+)-blocking peptides (Tytgat, J., Chandy, K. G., Garcia, M. L., Gutman, G. A., Martin-Eauclaire, M. F., van der Walt, J. J., and Possani, L. D. (1999) Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 20, 444-447). These toxins are 36-37 amino acids in length and have six aligned cysteine residues, but they differ substantially from the other alpha-K(+) toxins because of the absence of the critical Lys(27) and their total overall negative charge. Parabutoxin 1 (PBTx1), which has been expressed by recombinant methods, has been submitted to functional characterization. Despite the lack of the Lys(27), this toxin blocks several Kv1-type channels heterologously expressed in Xenopus oocytes but with low affinities (micromolar range). Because a relationship between the biological activity and the acidic residue substitutions may exist, we set out to elucidate the relative impact of the acidic character of the toxin and the lack of the critical Lys(27) on the weak activity of PBTx1 toward Kv1 channels. To achieve this, a specific mutant named rPBTx1 T24F/V26K was made recombinantly and fully characterized on Kv1-type channels heterologously expressed in Xenopus oocytes. Analysis of rPBTx1 T24F/V26K displaying an affinity toward Kv1.2 and Kv1.3 channels in the nanomolar range shows the importance of the functional dyad above the acidic character of this toxin.     

Determination of the rate and equilibrium constants for oxygen and carbon monoxide binding to R-state human hemoglobin cross-linked between the alpha subunits at lysine 99

The kinetics of O2 and CO binding to R-state human hemoglobin A0 and human hemoglobin cross-linked between the alpha chains at Lys99 residues were examined using ligand displacement and partial photolysis techniques. Oxygen equilibrium curves were measured by Imai's continuous recording method (Imai, K. (1981) Methods Enzymol. 76, 438-449). The rate of the R to T transition was determined after full laser photolysis of the carbon monoxide derivative by measuring the resultant absorbance changes at an isosbestic point for ligand binding. Chemical cross-linking caused the R-state O2 affinity of alpha subunits to decrease 6-fold compared with unmodified hemoglobin. This inhibition of O2 binding was the result of both a decrease in the rate constant for ligand association and an increase in the rate constant for dissociation. The O2 affinity of R-state beta subunits was reduced 2-fold because of an increase in the O2 dissociation rate constant. These changes were attributed to proximal effects on the R-state hemes as the result of the covalent cross-link between alpha chain G helices. This proximal strain in cross-linked hemoglobin was also expressed as a 5-fold higher rate for the unliganded R to T allosteric transition. The fourth O2 equilibrium binding constant, K4, measured by kinetic techniques, could be used to analyze equilibrium curves for either native or cross-linked hemoglobin. The resultant fitted values of the Adair constants, a1, a2, and a3 were similar to those obtained when K4 was allowed to vary, and the fits were of equal quality. When K4 was fixed to the kinetically determined value, the remaining Adair constants, particularly a3, became better defined.     

Mapping function to structure in a channel-blocking peptide: electrostatic mutants of charybdotoxin.

Electrostatic interactions between charybdotoxin (CTX), a specific peptide pore blocker of K+ channels, and a Ca(2+)-activated K+ channel were investigated with a genetically manipulable recombinant CTX. Point mutations at certain charged residues showed only small effects on the binding affinity of the toxin molecule: Lys11, Glu12, Arg19, His21, Lys31, and Lys32. Replacement by Gln at Arg25, Lys27, or Lys34 strongly decreased the affinity of the toxin. These affinity changes were mainly due to large increases of toxin dissociation rates without much effect on association rates, as if close-range interactions between the toxin and its receptor site of the channel were disrupted. We also found that the neutralization of Lys27 to Gln removed the toxin's characteristic voltage dependence in dissociation rate. Mutation and functional mapping of charged residues revealed a molecular surface of CTX which makes direct contact with the extracellular mouth of the K+ channel.     

Determinants of potency on alpha-conotoxin MII, a peptide antagonist of neuronal nicotinic receptors

Alpha-conotoxin MII, a peptide toxin isolated from Conus magus, antagonizes a subset of neuronal nicotinic receptors. Rat alpha3beta2 receptors, expressed in Xenopus oocytes, are blocked with an IC(50) of 3.7 +/- 0.3 nM. To identify structural features that determine toxin potency, a series of alanine-substituted toxins were synthesized and tested for the ability to block the function of alpha3beta2 receptors. Circular dichroism and protein modeling were used to assess the structural integrity of the mutant toxins. Three residues were identified as major determinants of toxin potency. Replacement of asparagine 5, proline 6, or histidine 12 with alanine resulted in >2700-fold, 700-fold, and approximately 2700-fold losses in toxin potency, respectively. A decrease in pH improved toxin potency, while an increase in pH eliminated toxin blockade, suggesting that, in the active form of the toxin, histidine 12 is charged. The imidazole ring of histidine 12 protrudes from one side, while asparagine 5 and proline 6 are located at the opposite end of the toxin structure. The side chains of these three residues are exposed on the surface of the toxin, suggesting that they directly interact with the alpha3beta2 receptor.     

On the molecular mechanisms of neutralization of a cobra neurotoxin by specific antibodies

Examination of 76 homologous neurotoxin sequences suggested that the "toxic" domain of these compounds consists of twelve highly conserved residues. Five of these, namely Lys-27, Trp-29, Asp-31, Arg-33 and Glu-38, together with a variant residue at position 36 are organized into a pattern which resembles that of d-tubocurarine. Two lines of experimental evidence are in agreement with the proposed topology of the "toxic" site in Naja nigricollis toxin alpha--Three highly conserved residues (Lys-27, Trp-29 and Lys-47) have been modified individually in toxin alpha. These modifications induce a decrease in binding affinity of toxin alpha for its target, the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor. In contrast, modifications of three residues (Leu-1, Lys-15 and Lys-51) excluded from the "toxic" domain, do not alter the binding properties of toxin alpha.--Five toxin derivatives carrying a nitroxide group at residues 1, 15, 27, 47 or 51 have been prepared. ESR spectra have been recorded for each derivative in both the free state and bound to the receptor. Mobility of the probes of the residues excluded from the "toxic" site is not altered upon receptor binding. In contrast mobility of the nitroxide of the presumed "toxic" Lys-47 becomes markedly reduced after toxin receptor complex formation. Lys-27 nitroxide is immobilized in both the free and bound state. The antigenic structure of N. nigricollis toxin alpha has been partially clarified using two different approaches. --Fifteen antigenically important residues of toxin alpha have been identified by analyzing cross-reactions between toxin alpha and eleven homologous neurotoxins, using polyclonal antibodies.--- One monoclonal antibody (M alpha 1) specific for toxin alpha has been prepared. Competition experiments, made with (3H) toxin alpha, six mono modified toxin derivatives or alpha three homologous neurotoxins, showed that the binding site of (M alpha 1) comprises the N-terminal group, Lys-15, Pro-18 and probably Thr-16. This site is topographically different from the "toxic" domain. (M alpha 1) inhibits the toxicity of toxin alpha under both in vivo and in vitro conditions. In addition, (M alpha 1) is capable of "removing" toxin molecules bound to the receptor, allowing a rapid recovery of the functional properties of the receptor.     

The functional role of positively charged amino acid side chains in alpha-bungarotoxin revealed by site-directed mutagenesis of a His-tagged recombinant alpha-bungarotoxin.

A polyhistidine tag was added to the N-terminus of alpha-bungarotoxin (Bgtx) recombinantly expressed in E. coli. The His-tagged Bgtx was identical to native, venom-derived Bgtx in its apparent affinity for the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) in Torpedo electric organ membranes. Furthermore, in a physiological assay involving mouse muscle nAChR expressed in Xenopus oocytes, the His-tagged Bgtx was as effective as authentic Bgtx at blocking acetylcholine-evoked currents. Ala-substitution mutagenesis of His-tagged Bgtx was used to evaluate the functional contribution of Arg36, a residue that is invariant among all alpha-neurotoxins. Replacement with Ala resulted in a 90-fold decrease in the apparent affinity for the Torpedo nAChR and a corresponding 150-fold increase in the IC50 for block of heterologously expressed mouse muscle nAChR, demonstrating the critical importance of this positive charge for the binding and functional activity of a long alpha-neurotoxin. The observed decrease in affinity corresponds to a DeltaDeltaG of 2.7 kcal/mol and indicates that Arg36 makes a major contribution to complex formation. This finding is consistent with the proposal that Arg36 mimics the positive charge found on acetylcholine and directs the toxin to interact with receptor sites normally involved in acetylcholine recognition. In comparison, Ala-substitution of the highly conserved Lys26 resulted in only a 9-fold decrease in apparent affinity. Truncation of the His-tagged Bgtx following residue 67 produces a toxin lacking the seven C-terminal residues including the two positively charged residues Lys70 and Arg72. Truncation leads to a 7-fold decrease in apparent binding affinity.     

Crystal structure of a non-toxic mutant of heat-labile enterotoxin, which is a potent mucosal adjuvant.

Two closely related bacterial toxins, heat-labile enterotoxin (LT-I) and cholera toxin (CT), not only invoke a toxic activity that affects many victims worldwide but also contain a beneficial mucosal adjuvant activity that significantly enhances the potency of vaccines in general. For the purpose of vaccine design it is most interesting that the undesirable toxic activity of these toxins can be eliminated by the single-site mutation Ser63Lys in the A subunit while the mucosal adjuvant activity is still present. The crystal structure of the Ser63Lys mutant of LT-I is determined at 2.0 A resolution. Its structure appears to be essentially the same as the wild-type LT-I structure. The substitution Ser63Lys was designed, based on the wild-type LT-I crystal structure, to decrease toxicity by interfering with NAD binding and/or catalysis. In the mutant crystal structure, the newly introduced lysine side chain is indeed positioned such that it could potentially obstruct the productive binding mode of the substrate NAD while at the same time its positive charge could possibly interfere with the critical function of nearby charged groups in the active site of LT-I. The fact that the Ser63Lys mutant of LT-I does not disrupt the wild-type LT-I structure makes the non-toxic mutant potentially suitable, from a structural point of view, to be used as a vaccine to prevent enterotoxigenic E. coli infections. The structural similarity of mutant and wild-type toxin might also be the reason why the inactive Ser63Lys variant retains its adjuvant activity.     

Activation of Clostridium botulinum type B and E derivative toxins with lysine-specific proteases

Abstract Clostridium botulinum type B and E derivative toxins were activated with lysyl endopeptidase or endoproteinase Lys-C, which splits only the bond involving the carboxyl group of a lysine residue. Type B toxin was more efficiently activated with lysyl endopeptidase; type E toxin was more efficiently activated with trypsin. Type B toxin was split by the lysine-specific protease into 2 fragments of molecular sizes indistinguishable from those induced with trypsin. Type E toxin was split by the same protease into 3 fragments, 2 of which had M _r identical to those obtained with trypsin, the other having an M _r less than that of the heavy chain but greater than that of the light chain. These results attest that both activation and nicking of type B and E derivative toxins are ascribable to cleavage, not of an arginyl, but of a lysyl bond.     

Comparison of Clostridium botulinum toxins type D and C1 in molecular property, antigenicity and binding ability to rat-brain synaptosomes

Botulinum type D neurotoxin was purified 950-fold from the culture supernatant with an overall yield of 32%. The purified toxin had a specific toxicity of 5.8 X 10(7) mouse minimal lethal dose per mg of protein and a relative molecular mass of 140000. The purified toxin had a di-chain structure consisting of heavy and light chains with relative molecular masses of 85000 and 55000, respectively, linked by one disulfide bond. These subunits had different amino acid compositions and antigenicities. A similarity in molecular constructions and amino acid compositions was observed between type D and type C1 toxins as well as between their subunits. Among the seven kinds of monoclonal antibodies against type D toxin, six reacted with the heavy chain of type D toxin, while one of the six also reacted with the heavy chain of type C1 toxin and neutralized the toxicities of the two toxins. The other one of monoclonal antibodies reacted with the light chains of both toxins. This evidence indicates that both toxins have common antigenic sites on their heavy and light chains and that the antigenic site on the heavy chain may contribute to the neutralization of both toxins by antibody. The binding of type D toxin to rat brain synaptosomes was examined by use of 125I-labelled type D toxin. The binding was competitively inhibited not only by unlabelled type D and C1 toxins, but also by the heavy chains of both toxins, however, it was not inhibited by the light chain of type D toxin. These results suggest that the toxin receptors on synaptosomal membrane are common for type D and C1 toxins, and that the heavy chain contributes to the binding of toxin to synaptosomes and the structure of the binding sites on the heavy chains of both toxins is quite similar.     

Effect of maurotoxin, a four disulfide-bridged toxin from the chactoid scorpion Scorpio maurus, on Shaker K+ channels.

Maurotoxin is a 34-residue toxin isolated from the venom of the Tunisian chactoid scorpion Scorpio maurus palmatus and contains four disulfide bridges that are normally found in long-chain toxins of 60-70 amino acid residues, which affect voltage-gated sodium channels. However, despite the unconventional disulfide-bridge pattern of maurotoxin, the conformation of this toxin remains similar to that of other toxins acting on potassium channels. Here, we analyzed the effects of synthetic maurotoxin on voltage-gated Shaker potassium channels (ShB) expressed in Xenopus oocytes. Maurotoxin produces a strong, but reversible, inhibition of the ShB K+ current with an IC50 of 2 nM. Increasing concentrations of the toxin induce a progressively higher block at saturating concentrations. At nonsaturating concentrations of the toxin (5-20 nM), the channel block appears slightly more pronounced at threshold potentials suggesting that the toxin may have a higher affinity for the closed state of the channel. At the single channel level, the toxin does not modify the unitary current amplitude, but decreases ensemble currents by increasing the number of depolarizing epochs that failed to elicit any opening. A point mutation of Lys23 to alanine in maurotoxin produces a 1000-fold reduction in the IC50 of block by the toxin suggesting the importance of this charged residue for the interaction with the channel. Maurotoxin does not affect K+ currents carried by Kir2.3 channels in oocytes or Na+ currents carried by the alphaIIa channel expressed in CHO cells.     

Neutralizing monoclonal antibody specific for Naja nigricollis toxin alpha: preparation, characterization, and localization of the antigenic binding site

One homogeneous population of high-affinity monoclonal antibodies (KD = 0.35 nM) specific for Naja nigricollis toxin alpha has been produced. It neutralizes the biological activity of the toxin under both the vivo and in vitro conditions. The molecular zone of the toxin to which the antibody binds has been precisely defined on the basis of cross-reaction experiments using five derivative of toxin alpha monomodified at a single amino group and two naturally occurring homologous toxins. The epitope is located at the base of the first beta-sheet loop of the toxin, involving the two positive charges at the N-terminal position and lysine-15 proline-18, and probably threonine-16. It is shown that this region is topographically distinct from the "toxic" site of toxin alpha. Several possibilities are offered to explain the mechanisms(s) of specific neutralization.     

Chemical modification of notexin fromNotechis scutatus scutatus (Australian tiger snake) venom with pyridoxal-5′-phosphate

Notexin fromNotechis scutatus scutatus snake venom was subjected to Lys modification with pyridoxal 5′-phosphate (PLP), and one major modified derivative was purified on a cation-exchanger SP-8HR column. The results of amino acid analysis and sequence determination revealed that only 2 Lys residues at positions 82 and 115 out of 11 Lys residues in notexin were modified. The incorporation of PLP into the protein was accompanied by the loss of 53% lethal toxicity, but the modified notexin showed an about 1.2-fold increase in enzymatic activity. However, the secondary structure of the toxin molecule did not significantly change after modification with PLP as revealed by the CD spectra, and the antigenicity of PLP derivative remained unchanged. The modified derivative retained its affinity for Ca²⁺, indicating that the modified Lys residues did not participate in Ca²⁺ binding. These results indicate that modification of Lys residues causes a differential effect on the enzymatic activity and lethal toxicity of notexin, and suggest that notexin might possess two functional sites, one responsible for the catalytic activity and the other associated with its lethal effect.     

The propeptide of Clostridium septicum alpha toxin functions as an intramolecular chaperone and is a potent inhibitor of alpha toxin-dependent cytolysis

Clostridium septicum alpha toxin is activated by a proteolytic cleavage at Arg-398 in its carboxy terminus, which yields a 41.3-kDa cytolytically active toxin and a 5.1-kDa propeptide. Studies were performed to determine when the propeptide dissociated from the toxin after proteolytic activation of the protoxin (AT^pro) and to demonstrate the chaperone activity of the propeptide. The propeptide was found to remain associated with the toxin after activation with trypsin (AT^act) when analysed by gel filtration or affinity chromatography of a polyhistidine-tagged derivative that contained the polyhistidine tag on the propeptide. The affinity of the propeptide for the toxin was decreased significantly when a mutation was introduced in which Val-400 was converted to a cysteine residue. This mutation destabilized the interaction of the propeptide with the toxin and the propeptide was found to dissociate from the toxin under the same gel-filtration conditions used for the wild-type toxin. The separation of the propeptide in the V400C mutant did not affect the cytolytic activity of the toxin and therefore the propeptide was not necessary for cytolytic activity. These data suggested that the propeptide did not dissociate from the main body of the toxin after proteolysis. Further analysis demonstrated that purified propeptide was a potent inhibitor of alpha toxin activity, which inhibited the oligomerization of alpha toxin into a functional pore. These data suggest that the propeptide does not participate in the final oligomerized complex and that oligomerization appears to displace the propeptide from AT^act. The importance of the propeptide to the solution stability of alpha toxin was also demonstrated. When AT^pro was activated in solution with trypsin a significant level (approximately 50%) of inactive aggregate formed. This aggregate, which could be removed by centrifugation at 14 000 × g, was made up of both SDS-sensitive and -resistant aggregates, suggesting that a variety of inactive aggregates formed when the monomers interacted in solution. Significantly higher levels of haemolytic activity (approximately 16-fold) were observed when alpha toxin was proteolytically activated after membrane binding instead of in solution. These results support the role of the propeptide as an intramolecular chaperone that stabilizes the monomeric AT^pro and shuttles it to the membrane where it is activated by protease, oligomerizes into a pre-pore complex and forms a pore. The data suggest that oligomerization of the toxin displaces the propeptide from the monomer form of alpha toxin and that the propeptide does not participate in, and is not necessary to, the final cytolytic complex.