Protective effect of the xanthate, D609, on Alzheimer's amyloid beta-peptide (1-42)-induced oxidative stress in primary neuronal cells

Tricyclodecan-9-yl-xanthogenate (D609) is an inhibitor of phosphatidylcholine-specific phospholipase C, and this agent also has been reported to protect rodents against oxidative damage induced by ionizing radiation. Previously, we showed that D609 mimics glutathione (GSH) functions and that a disulfide is formed upon oxidation of D609 and the resulting dixanthate is a substrate for GSH reductase, regenerating D609. Considerable attention has been focused on increasing the intracellular GSH levels in many diseases, including Alzheimer's disease (AD). Amyloid β-peptide [Aβ(1-42)], elevated in AD brain, is associated with oxidative stress and toxicity. The present study aimed to investigate the protective effects of D609 on Aβ(1-42)-induced oxidative cell toxicity in cultured neurons. Decreased cell survival in neuronal cultures treated with Aβ(1-42) correlated with increased free radical production measured by dichlorofluorescein fluorescence and an increase in protein oxidation (protein carbonyl, 3-nitrotyrosine) and lipid peroxidation (4-hydroxy-2-nonenal) formation. Pretreatment of primary hippocampal cultures with D609 significantly attenuated Aβ(1-42)-induced cytotoxicity, intracellular ROS accumulation, protein oxidation, lipid peroxidation and apoptosis. Methylated D609, with the thiol functionality no longer able to form the disulfide upon oxidation, did not protect neuronal cells against Aβ(1-42)-induced oxidative stress. Our results suggest that D609 exerts protective effects against Aβ(1-42) toxicity by modulating oxidative stress. These results may be of importance for the treatment of AD and other oxidative stress-related diseases.     

Cupric-amyloid beta peptide complex stimulates oxidation of ascorbate and generation of hydroxyl radical

A growing body of evidence supports an important role for oxidative stress in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. Recently, a number of papers have shown a synergistic neurotoxicity of amyloid beta peptide and cupric ions. We hypothesized that complexes of cupric ions with neurotoxic amyloid beta peptides (Abeta) can stimulate copper-mediated free radical formation. We found that neurotoxic Abeta (1-42), Abeta (1-40), and Abeta (25-35) stimulated copper-mediated oxidation of ascorbate, whereas nontoxic Abeta (40-1) did not. Formation of ascorbate free radical was significantly increased by Abeta (1-42) in the presence of ceruloplasmin. Once cupric ion is reduced to cuprous ion, it can be oxidized by oxygen to generate superoxide radical or it can react with hydrogen peroxide to form hydroxyl radical. Hydrogen peroxide greatly increased the oxidation of cyclic hydroxylamines and ascorbate by cupric-amyloid beta peptide complexes, implying redox cycling of copper ions. Using the spin-trapping technique, we have shown that toxic amyloid beta peptides led to a 4-fold increase in copper-mediated hydroxyl radical formation. We conclude that toxic Abeta peptides do indeed stimulate copper-mediated oxidation of ascorbate and generation of hydroxyl radicals. Therefore, cupric-amyloid beta peptide-stimulated free radical generation may be involved in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease.     

Enhancement of β-Amyloid Peptide Aβ(1–40)-Mediated Neurotoxicity by Glutamine Synthetase

Abstract: The β-amyloid peptide (Aβ), a main constituent in both senile and diffuse plaques in Alzheimer's disease brains, was previously shown to be neurotoxic and to be able to interact with several macromolecular components of brain tissue. Previous investigations carried out in our laboratory demonstrated free radical species formation in aqueous solutions of Aβ(1–40) and its C-end fragment, Aβ(25–35). Toxic forms of Aβ rapidly inactivate the oxidation-sensitive cytosolic enzyme glutamine synthetase (GS). In this regard, we suggested and subsequently demonstrated that Aβ radicals can cause an oxidative damage of cell proteins and lipids resulting in disruption of membrane functions, enzyme inactivation, and cell death. Because GS can be a substrate for Aβ-derived oxidizing species, the present study was conducted to determine if GS could protect against Aβ neurotoxicity. In contrast to this initial hypothesis, we here report that GS significantly enhances the neurotoxic effects of Aβ(1–40). The Aβ-mediated inactivation of GS was found to be accompanied by the loss of immunoreactive GS and the significant increase of Aβ(1–40) neurotoxicity.     

Review: Alzheimer's Amyloid β-Peptide-Associated Free Radical Oxidative Stress and Neurotoxicity

Alzheimer's disease, the major dementing disorder of the elderly that affects over 4 million Americans, is related to amyloid β-peptide, the principal component of senile plaques in Alzheimer's disease brain. Oxidative stress, manifested by protein oxidation and lipid peroxidation, among other alterations, is a characteristic of Alzheimer's disease brain. Our laboratory united these two observations in a model to account for neurodegeneration in Alzheimer's disease brain, the amyloid β-peptide-associated oxidative stress model for neurotoxicity in Alzheimer's disease. Under this model, the aggregated peptide, perhaps in concert with bound redox metal ions, initiates free radical processes resulting in protein oxidation, lipid peroxidation, reactive oxygen species formation, cellular dysfunction leading to calcium ion accumulation, and subsequent neuronal death. Free radical antioxidants abrogate these findings. This review outlines the substantial evidence from multiidisciplinary approaches for amyloid β-peptide-associated free radical oxidative stress and neurotoxicity and protection against these oxidative processes and cell death by free radical scavengers. In addition, we review the strong evidence supporting the notion that the single methionine residue of amyloid β-peptide is vital to the oxidative stress and neurotoxicological properties of this peptide. Further, we discuss studies that support the hypothesis that aggregated soluble amyloid β-peptide and not fibrils per se are necessary for oxidative stress and neurotoxicity associated with amyloid β-peptide.     

Protein oxidation and enzyme susceptibility in white and gray matter with in vitro oxidative stress: relevance to brain injury from intracerebral hemorrhage.

Intracerebral hemorrhage (ICH) is a devastating stroke sub-type with high mortality and morbidity. ICH frequently occurs in subcortical white matter generating hematomas that contain high heme iron levels. In this study, we examined the consequences of iron-induced oxidation (1-100 microM Fe2+ for 30 min. or 50 microM Fe2+ for 1-120 min.) on the activities of two oxidatively sensitive enzymes, creatine kinase (CK) and glutamine synthetase (GS), and on an oxidative stress marker, protein carbonyl formation, in porcine cerebral cortical white and gray matter. In vitro iron oxidation produced time and concentration dependent decreases in both CK [maximum decreases of 49.3+/-1.2% and 44.3+/-4.1% (average +/- SEM, N=3) for white and gray matter, respectively] and GS activities (maximum decreases of 16.9+/-1.7% and 13.2+/-1.0% for white and gray matter, respectively) and increases in protein carbonyl formation. Interestingly, protein carbonyl concentrations were significantly greater (p<0.05) in white vs. gray matter at 100 microM iron (30 min.) and 50 microM iron (120 min.). Additionally, CK and GS activities were lower for white versus gray matter at several time points and iron concentrations. It is our hypothesis that iron induced oxidative stress contributes to the pathogenesis of perihematomal brain injury following ICH.     

Protective Role of Cys-178 against the Inactivation and Oligomerization of Human Insulin-degrading Enzyme by Oxidation and Nitrosylation

Insulin-degrading enzyme (IDE), a 110-kDa metalloendopeptidase, hydrolyzes several physiologically relevant peptides, including insulin and amyloid-β (Aβ). Human IDE has 13 cysteines and is inhibited by hydrogen peroxide and S-nitrosoglutathione (GSNO), donors of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, respectively. Here, we report that the oxidative burst of BV-2 microglial cells leads to oxidation or nitrosylation of secreted IDE, leading to the reduced activity. Hydrogen peroxide and GSNO treatment of IDE reduces the V_max for Aβ degradation, increases IDE oligomerization, and decreases IDE thermostability. Additionally, this inhibitory response of IDE is substrate-dependent, biphasic for Aβ degradation but monophasic for a shorter bradykinin-mimetic substrate. Our mutational analysis of IDE and peptide mass fingerprinting of GSNO-treated IDE using Fourier transform-ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometer reveal a surprising interplay of Cys-178 with Cys-110 and Cys-819 for catalytic activity and with Cys-789 and Cys-966 for oligomerization. Cys-110 is near the zinc-binding catalytic center and is normally buried. The oxidation and nitrosylation of Cys-819 allow Cys-110 to be oxidized or nitrosylated, leading to complete inactivation of IDE. Cys-789 is spatially adjacent to Cys-966, and their nitrosylation and oxidation together trigger the oligomerization and inhibition of IDE. Interestingly, the Cys-178 modification buffers the inhibition caused by Cys-819 modification and prevents the oxidation or nitrosylation of Cys-110. The Cys-178 modification can also prevent the oligomerization-mediated inhibition. Thus, IDE can be intricately regulated by reactive oxygen or nitrogen species. The structure of IDE reveals the molecular basis for the long distance interactions of these cysteines and how they regulate IDE function.     

Glutamine Synthetase-Induced Enhancement of β-Amyloid Peptide Aβ(1–40) Neurotoxicity Accompanied by Abrogation of Fibril Formation and Aβ Fragmentation

Abstract: β-Amyloid peptide (Aβ) is the main constituent in both senile plaques and diffuse deposits in Alzheimer's diseased brains. It was previously shown that synthetic Aβs were able to form free radical species in aqueous solution and cause both oxidative damage to cell proteins and inactivation of key metabolic enzymes. We also previously demonstrated that an interaction of Aβ(1–40) with the oxidatively sensitive enzyme glutamine synthetase (GS) resulted in both inactivation of GS and an increase of Aβ toxicity to hippocampal cell cultures. In the present study the enhancement of Aβ toxicity during interaction with GS was found to be accompanied by abrogation of fibril formation and partial fragmentation of Aβ(1–40). HPLC elution profiles demonstrated the production of several peptide fragments. Analysis of the amino acid sequence of the major fragments identified them as the first 15 and the last six amino acids of Aβ(1–40). The fragmentation of Aβ was inhibited by immunoprecipitation of GS.     

Resistance of human cerebrospinal fluid to in vitro oxidation is directly related to its amyloid-β content

Amyloid-β (Aβ) peptide, a major constituent of senile plaques and a hallmark of Alzheimer's disease (AD), is normally secreted by neurons and can be found in low concentrations in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and plasma where it is associated with lipoproteins. However, the physiological role of Aβ secretion remains unknown. We measured the resistance to in vitro oxidation of CSF obtained from 20 control subjects and 30 patients with AD, and correlated it with CSF levels of antioxidants, lipids and Aβ. We found that the oxidative resistance, expressed as a duration of the oxidation lag-phase, was directly related to CSF levels of Aβ_1-40, Aβ_1-42 and ascorbate and inversely to levels of fatty acids. These data suggest that, besides ascorbate, Aβ is another major physiological antioxidant for CSF lipoproteins.     

Oxidatively Induced Structural Alteration of Glutamine Synthetase Assessed by Analysis of Spin Label Incorporation Kinetics: Relevance to Alzheimer's Disease

Abstract: The activity of the astrocytic enzyme glutamine synthetase (GS) is decreased in the Alzheimer's disease brain, which may have relevance to mechanisms of chronic excitotoxicity. The molecular perturbation(s) that results in GS inactivation is not known, although oxidative lesioning of the enzyme is one likely cause. To assess structural perturbation induced in GS by metal-catalyzed oxidation, a series of spin-labeling studies were undertaken. Ovine GS was oxidized by exposure to iron/hydrogen peroxide and subsequently labeled with the thiol-specific nitroxide probe MTS [(1-oxyl-2,2,5,5-tetramethyl-pyrroline-3-methyl)methanethiosulfonate]. The reaction of MTS with cysteine residues within GS was monitored in real time by electron paramagnetic resonance spectrometry. Structural perturbation of GS, manifested as decreased thiol accessibility, was inferred from an apparent decrease in the rate constant for the second-order reaction of MTS with protein thiols. A subsequent spin-labeling study was undertaken to compare the structural integrity of GS purified and isolated from Alzheimer's disease-afflicted brain (AD-GS) with that of GS isolated from nondemented, age-matched control brain (C-GS). The rate constant for reaction of MTS with AD-GS was markedly decreased relative to that for the reaction of spin label with C-GS. The kinetic data were partially corroborated by spectroscopic data obtained from circular dichroism analysis of control and peroxide-treated ovine GS. In an adjunct experiment, the interaction of GS with a synthetic analogue of the Alzheimer's-associated β-amyloid peptide, known to induce free radical oxidative stress, indicated strong interaction of the enzyme with the peptide as reflected by a decrease in the rate constant for MTS binding to reactive protein thiols.     

Prooxidant Action of Maltol: Role of Transition Metals in the Generation of Reactive Oxygen Species and Enhanced Formation of 8-hydroxy-2′-deoxyguanosine Formation in DNA

Maltol (3-hydroxy-2-methyl-4-pyrone) produced reactive oxygen species as a complex with transition metals. Maltol/iron complex inactivated aconitase the most sensitive enzyme to oxidative stress. The inactivation of aconitase was iron-dependent, and prevented by TEMPOL, a scavenger of reactive oxygen species, suggesting that the maltol/iron-mediated generation of superoxide anion is responsible for the inactivation of aconitase. Addition of maltol effectively enhanced the ascorbate/copper-mediated formation of 8-hydroxy-2′-deoxyguanosine in DNA. Oxidation of ascorbic acid by CuSO₄ was effectively stimulated by addition of maltol, and the enhanced oxidation rate was markedly inhibited by the addition of catalase and superoxide dismutase. These results suggest that maltol can stimulate the copper reduction coupled with the oxidation of ascorbate, resulting in the production of superoxide radical which in turn converts to hydrogen peroxide and hydroxyl radical. Cytotoxic effect of maltol can be explained by its prooxidant properties: maltol/transition metal complex generates reactive oxygen species causing the inactivation of aconitase and the production of hydroxyl radical causing the formation of DNA base adduct.     

Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy used to evidence the prevention of beta-sheet formation of amyloid beta(1-40) peptide by a short amyloid fragment

Reflectance Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) microspectroscopy was applied to study the prevention of β-sheet formation of amyloid β (Aβ)(1–40) peptide by co-incubation with a hexapeptide containing a KLVFF sequence (Aβ(15–20) fragment). Second-derivative spectral analysis was used to locate the position of the overlapping components of the amide I band of Aβ peptide and assigned them to different secondary components. The result indicates that each intact sample of Aβ(15–20) fragment or Aβ(1–40) peptide previously incubated in distilled water at 37 °C transformed their secondary structure from 1649 (1651) or 1653 cm⁻¹ to 1624 cm⁻¹, suggesting the transformation from -helix and/or random coil structures to β-sheet structure. By co-incubating both samples with different molar ratio in distilled water at 37 °C, the structural transformation was not found for Aβ(1–40) peptide after 24 h-incubation. But the β-sheet formation of Aβ(1–40) peptide after 48 h-incubation was evidenced from the appearance of the IR peak at 1626 cm⁻¹ by adding a little amount of Aβ(15–20) fragment. There was no β-sheet formation of Aβ(1–40) peptide after addition with much amount of Aβ(15–20) fragment, however, suggesting the higher amount of Aβ(15–20) fragment used might inhibit the β-sheet formation of Aβ(1–40) peptide. The more Aβ(15–20) fragment used made the more stable structure of Aβ(1–40) peptide and the less β-sheet formation of Aβ(1–40) peptide. The study indicates that the reflectance FT-IR microspectroscopy can easily evidence the prevention of β-sheet formation of Aβ(1–40) peptide by a short amyloid fragment.     

Susceptibility of amyloid beta peptide degrading enzymes to oxidative damage: a potential Alzheimer's disease spiral

Insulysin (IDE) and neprilysin (NEP) were found to be inactivated by oxidation with hydrogen peroxide, an iron-ascorbate oxidation system, and by treatment with 2,2'-azobis(2-amidinopropane) dihydrochloride (AAPH). In each case reaction led to the introduction of protein carbonyl groups as judged by reaction with 2,4-dintrophenylhydrazine. IDE was inactivated by reaction with 4-hydroxy-2-nonenal (HNE) with the concomitant formation of protein adducts. NEP was not inactivated to a significant extent by HNE, but some HNE-adduct formation did occur. Prior reaction with hydrogen peroxide or AAPH led to enhanced formation of HNE adducts. Treatment of IDE with AAHP or hydrogen peroxide increased its susceptibility to proteolysis, while treatment of NEP with iron/ascorbate or hydrogen peroxide increased its susceptibility to proteolysis. Since IDE and NEP play a prominent role in the clearance of amyloid beta peptides, their oxidative inactivation and enhanced proteolysis can contribute to the onset and/or progression of Alzheimer's disease.     

Lipid peroxidation induced by cercosporin as a possible determinant of its toxicity

The photodynamic action of cercosporin was assayed in various kinds of natural and artificial membranes. Cerosporin induces lipoperoxidation of liposomes, rat liver and pea internode mitochondria and microsomes, estimated both as malondialdehyde (MDA) formation and O2 consumption. Cercosporin-induced lipoperoxidation is inhibited by either singlet oxygen quenchers, free radical trapping agents or EDTA. Superoxide anion (O2-), hydrogen peroxide and hydroxyl radicals (.OH) are not involved in the activity of cercosporin. In addition cercosporin, by chelating iron, lowers the lipoperoxidation induced by such a metal. Therefore cercosporin stimulates, through singlet oxygen production, the hydroperoxide formation but, at the same time, it inhibits the continuation of the iron-mediated free radical chain. The present results suggest that cellular lipid peroxidation has a certain relevance to toxic activity of cercosporin.     

Amyloid beta peptide (25-35) activates protein kinase C leading to cyclooxygenase-2 induction and prostaglandin E2 release in primary midbrain astrocytes

Prostaglandins (PGs) are generated by the enzymatic activity of cyclooxygenase-1 and -2 (COX-1/2) and modulate several functions in the CNS such as the generation of fever, the sleep/wake cycle, and the perception of pain. Moreover, the induction of COX-2 and the generation of PGs has been linked to neuroinflammatory aspects of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) that block COX enzymatic activity have been shown to reduce the incidence of AD in various epidemiological studies. While several reports investigated the expression of COX-2 in neurons and microglia, expression of COX-2 in astroglial cells has not been investigated in detail. Here we show that amyloid β peptide 25–35 (Aβ_25–35) induces COX-2 mRNA and protein synthesis and a subsequent release of prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂) in primary midbrain astrocytes. We further demonstrate that protein kinase C (PKC) is involved in Aβ_25–35-induced COX-2/PGE₂ synthesis. PKC-inhibitors prevent Aβ_25–35-induced COX-2 and PGE₂ synthesis. Furthermore Aβ_25–35 rapidly induces the phosphorylation and enzymatic activation of PKC in primary rat midbrain glial cells and in primary human astrocytes from post mortem tissue. Our data suggest that the PKC isoforms and/or β are most probably involved in Aβ_25–35-induced expression of COX-2 in midbrain astrocytes. The potential role of astroglial cells in the phagocytosis of amyloid and the involvement of PGs in this process suggests that a modulation of PGs synthesis may be a putative target in the prevention of amyloid deposition.     

The influence of spin-labeled fluorene compounds on the assembly and toxicity of the aβ peptide

Background

The deposition and oligomerization of amyloid β (Aβ) peptide plays a key role in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer''s disease (AD). Aβ peptide arises from cleavage of the membrane-associated domain of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) by β and γ secretases. Several lines of evidence point to the soluble Aβ oligomer (AβO) as the primary neurotoxic species in the etiology of AD. Recently, we have demonstrated that a class of fluorene molecules specifically disrupts the AβO species.

Methodology/Principal Findings

To achieve a better understanding of the mechanism of action of this disruptive ability, we extend the application of electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy of site-directed spin labels in the Aβ peptide to investigate the binding and influence of fluorene compounds on AβO structure and dynamics. In addition, we have synthesized a spin-labeled fluorene (SLF) containing a pyrroline nitroxide group that provides both increased cell protection against AβO toxicity and a route to directly observe the binding of the fluorene to the AβO assembly. We also evaluate the ability of fluorenes to target multiple pathological processes involved in the neurodegenerative cascade, such as their ability to block AβO toxicity, scavenge free radicals and diminish the formation of intracellular AβO species.

Conclusions

Fluorene modified with pyrroline nitroxide may be especially useful in counteracting Aβ peptide toxicity, because they posses both antioxidant properties and the ability to disrupt AβO species.     

Oxidative modification of glutamine synthetase by 2,2'-azobis(2- amidinopropane) dihydrochloride

In the present study, we examined the pattern of protein modification elicited by alkylperoxyl radicals and alkylperoxides. To this end, we exposed glutamine synthetase (GS) and the peptide melittin to solutions containing 2,2'-azobis(2-amidinopropane) dihydrochloride (AAPH), which is known to decompose in aqueous, aerobic solutions to yield alkyl radicals and alkylperoxides. Under our conditions, pH 7.4, 37 degrees C, the AAPH-dependent formation of alkylhydroperoxide increased linearly with time and led to 40% inactivation of GS in 1 h and to complete inactivation in 4 h. Complete inactivation was associated with the loss of 2 of 16 histidine residues, 6 of 17 tyrosine residues, 5 of 16 methionine residues, and all of the tryptophan residues (2 residues) per subunit. Inactivation of GS was associated also with some protein fragmentation and the formation of some higher molecular weight aggregates. Exposure of GS to AAPH led also to the generation of protein carbonyl derivatives (0.34 mol/mol subunit) and to formation of a significant amount (0.038 mol/mol subunits) of quinoprotein derivatives. To investigate the mechanism of tryptophan modification, the 26-amino-acid peptide, melittin, which contains one tryptophan but no histidine, tyrosine, or methionine residues, was treated with AAPH. N-Formylkynurenine was identified as the major product of tryptophan oxidation in melittin.     

Oxidative Effects of Iron on Erythrocytes

In this work we have investigated the effects of iron-induced free radical formation in normal human erythrocytes in vitro, as a model system for studying iron damage, and in erythrocytes from patients with β-thalassaemia major. The resulting oxidative effects were measured in terms of methaemoglobin formation and reduced glutathione loss. The effects of desferrioxamine, an iron-chelating agent, were also investigated.

The results show that the increased methaemoglobin formation after iron-induced oxidative stress is consistent with a decline in the intracellular glutathione levels and that this process is inhibited by desferrioxamine. Similar treatment of red cell haemolysates produces less methaemoglobin. This suggests that, on exposure of intact erythrocytes to iron-induced free radical effects, the red cell membrane exacerbates the breakdown of the antioxidant defences of the cell and the oxidation of haemoglobin.     

Cytochrome c-catalyzed oxidation of organic molecules by hydrogen peroxide.

Cytochrome c catalyzed the oxidation of various electron donors in the presence of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), including 2-2'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulfonic acid) (ABTS), 4-aminoantipyrine (4-AP), and luminol. With ferrocytochrome c, oxidation reactions were preceded by a lag phase corresponding to the H2O2-mediated oxidation of cytochrome c to the ferric state; no lag phase was observed with ferricytochrome c. However, brief preincubation of ferricytochrome c with H2O2 increased its catalytic activity prior to progressive inactivation and degradation. Superoxide (O2-) and hydroxyl radical (.OH) were not involved in this catalytic activity, since it was not sensitive to superoxide dismutase (SOD) or mannitol. Free iron released from the heme did not play a role in the oxidative reactions as concluded from the lack of effect of diethylenetriaminepentaacetic acid. Uric acid and tryptophan inhibited the oxidation of ABTS, stimulation of luminol chemiluminescence, and inactivation of cytochrome c. Our results are consistent with an initial activation of cytochrome c by H2O2 to a catalytically more active species in which a high oxidation state of an oxo-heme complex mediates the oxidative reactions. The lack of SOD effect on cytochrome c-catalyzed, H2O2-dependent luminol chemiluminescence supports a mechanism of chemiexcitation whereby a luminol endoperoxide is formed by direct reaction of H2O2 with an oxidized luminol molecule, either luminol radical or luminol diazoquinone.