Influence of moderately intense strength training on flexibility in sedentary young women

The present study is the first to examine whether moderately intense resistance training improves flexibility in an exclusively young, sedentary women population. Twenty-four, young, sedentary women were divided into 3 groups as follows: agonist/antagonist (AA) training group, alternated strength training (AST) group, or a control group (CG). Training occurred every other day for 8 weeks for a total of 24 sessions. Training groups performed 3 sets of 10 to 12 repetitions per set except for abdominal training where 3 sets of 15 to 20 reps were performed. Strength (1 repetition maximum bench press) and flexibility were assessed before and after the training period. Flexibility was assessed on 6 articular movements: shoulder flexion and extension, horizontal shoulder adduction and abduction, and trunk flexion and extension. Both groups increased strength and flexibility significantly from baseline and significantly when compared with the CG (p ≤ 0.05). The AST group increased strength and flexibility significantly more than the AA group (p ≤ 0.05) in all but one measurement. This study shows that resistance training can improve flexibility in young sedentary women in 8 weeks.     

Response of the trunk muscles to training assessed by magnetic resonance imaging and muscle strength.

A group of 12 sedentary medical students (1 man and 11 women aged 21-27 years) participated in a strength training programme for the trunk muscles lasting 18 weeks. The maximal isometric flexion and extension forces of the trunk muscles were measured before the training and at 18 weeks by dynamometer. The cross-sectional area of the back muscles, i.e. erector spinae, multifidus and psoas muscles, was measured from magnetic resonance images (spin echo sequence TR/TE 1500/80, slice thickness 10 mm) obtained at the L4-L5 disc level before the training, at 11 and 18 weeks. During training, no significant change in the body mass or body fat content was found. Muscle forces or muscle cross-sectional area were not related to body mass. There was a significant increase in both trunk muscle cross-sectional area (psoas muscle P < 0.001 and back muscles P < 0.01) and trunk muscle forces (flexion and extension forces P < 0.01) during the training but no direct association between the muscle cross-sectional area and strength of the flexors and extensors was detected before or after the training.     

Effects of Swiss-ball core strength training on strength, endurance, flexibility, and balance in sedentary women

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of Swiss-ball core strength training on trunk extensor (abdominal)/flexor (lower back) and lower limb extensor (quadriceps)/flexor (hamstring) muscular strength, abdominal, lower back and leg endurance, flexibility and dynamic balance in sedentary women (n = 21; age = 34 ± 8.09; height = 1.63 ± 6.91 cm; weight = 64 ± 8.69 kg) trained for 45 minutes, 3 d·wk-1 for 12 weeks. Results of multivariate analysis revealed significant difference (p ≤ 0.05) between pre and postmeasures of 60 and 90° s trunk flexion/extension, 60 and 240° s-1 lower limb flexion/extension (Biodex Isokinetic Dynamometer), abdominal endurance (curl-up test), lower back muscular endurance (modified Sorensen test), lower limb endurance (repetitive squat test), lower back flexibility (sit and reach test), and dynamic balance (functional reach test). The results support the fact that Swiss-ball core strength training exercises can be used to provide improvement in the aforementioned measures in sedentary women. In conclusion, this study provides practical implications for sedentary individuals, physiotherapists, strength and conditioning specialists who can benefit from core strength training with Swiss balls.     

Musculoskeletal capacity of middle-aged women and men in physical, mental and mixed occupations. A 3.5-year follow-up

The musculoskeletal capacity of 44 women and 39 men, mean age 55.0 +/- 3.4 years, was studied at the beginning and end of a 3.5 year period. The measurements included anthropometrics, maximal isometric trunk flexion and extension strength, maximal isometric hand grip strength and back mobility. According to a job analysis the subjects were divided into three dominating work groups: physical, mental and mixed groups. The results showed significant changes in anthropometrics, maximal isometric muscle strength and in mobility. The body weight and body mass index among women and the body mass index among men increased significantly during the period. The body height and sum of the skinfolds had on the other hand decreased significantly for both women and men. Women showed significant decreases of 9% and 10% (p less than 0.05 and p less than 0.01) in isometric trunk flexion and extension strength, and an increase of 9% in back mobility (p less than 0.05). In mental work, most of the significant changes occurred among women. Men had significant decreases in isometric trunk flexion and extension, 22% and 16% respectively (p less than 0.001) and an increase of 13% in back mobility (p less than 0.001). The men doing physical work had most of the significant changes in musculoskeletal capacity. The results revealed accelerated changes in musculoskeletal capacity in middle-aged employees.     

Relationship between hip and knee strength and knee valgus during a single leg squat

The purpose of this study was to determine the relationship between hip and knee strength, and valgus knee motion during a single leg squat. Thirty healthy adults (15 men, 15 women) stood on their preferred foot, squatted to approximately 60 deg of knee flexion, and returned to the standing position. Frontal plane knee motion was evaluated using 3-D motion analysis. During Session 2, isokinetic (60 deg/sec) concentric and eccentric hip (abduction/adduction, flexion/extension, and internal/external rotation) and knee (flexion/extension) strength was evaluated. The results demonstrated that hip abduction (r2=0.13), knee flexion (r2=0.18), and knee extension (r2=0.14) peak torque were significant predictors of frontal plane knee motion. Significant negative correlations showed that individuals with greater hip abduction (r=-0.37), knee flexion (r=-0.43), and knee extension (r=-0.37) peak torque exhibited less motion toward the valgus direction. Men exhibited significantly greater absolute peak torque for all motions, excluding eccentric internal rotation. When normalized to body mass, men demonstrated significantly greater strength than women for concentric hip adduction and flexion, knee flexion and extension, and eccentric hip extension. The major findings demonstrate a significant role of hip muscle strength in the control of frontal plane knee motion.     

The benefits of regular kinesiotherapy once a week for postmenopausal women: an aged-matched study

Regular exercise training improves overall physical fitness and quality of life in postmenopausal women. The exigent training frequency depends on a user-specified training aim. The aim of this study was to confirm the benefits of regular once a week exercise training for the maintenance of fitness in postmenopausal women. The test group included 20 postmenopausal women (65 +/- 3.1 years) who have been attending the exercise training program conducted by the physiotherapist once a week for three years. The age-matched control group included 20 healthy women (65.5 +/- 2.4 years) who did not regularly attend the training program. The outcomes were: right and left lateral trunk flexion, right and left shoulder flexion, right and left grip strength, endurance capacity of the trunk extensors, lower limb muscle strength (1' chair stand test), and balance (one-leg standing duration time with eyes open and closed). Women from the test group achieved statistically significant better results in the following outcomes: right lateral trunk flexion (15.4 cm: 12.6 cm, p < 0.001), left lateral trunk flexion (15.4 cm: 12.6 cm, p = 0.001), trunk extension muscle endurance (53.4 s: 40.5 s, p < 0.001), lower limb muscle strength (28.4 x: 25 x, p < 0.001), and one-leg standing duration time with open eyes (33.5 s: 19.7 s, p < 0.001). The results suggest that a regular once a week exercise training program designed and conducted by the physiotherapist, may be helpful in the improvement or maintenance of flexibility, muscle strength and capacity, and balance in postmenopausal women. The better fitness proved by our study could be a result of other causes and not solely that of the designed training program.     

Resistance training vs. static stretching: effects on flexibility and strength

Morton, SK, Whitehead, JR, Brinkert, RH, and Caine, DJ. Resistance training vs. static stretching: Effects on flexibility and strength. J Strength Cond Res 25(12): 3391-3398, 2011-The purpose of this study was to determine how full-range resistance training (RT) affected flexibility and strength compared to static stretching (SS) of the same muscle-joint complexes in untrained adults. Volunteers (n = 25) were randomized to an RT or SS training group. A group of inactive volunteers (n = 12) served as a convenience control group (CON). After pretesting hamstring extension, hip flexion and extension, shoulder extension flexibility, and peak torque of quadriceps and hamstring muscles, subjects completed 5-week SS or RT treatments in which the aim was to stretch or to strength train the same muscle-joint complexes over similar movements and ranges. Posttests of flexibility and strength were then conducted. There was no difference in hamstring flexibility, hip flexion, and hip extension improvement between RT and SS, but both were superior to CON values. There were no differences between groups on shoulder extension flexibility. The RT group was superior to the CON in knee extension peak torque, but there were no differences between groups on knee flexion peak torque. The results of this preliminary study suggest that carefully constructed full-range RT regimens can improve flexibility as well as the typical SS regimens employed in conditioning programs. Because of the potential practical significance of these results to strength and conditioning programs, further studies using true experimental designs, larger sample sizes, and longer training durations should be conducted with the aim of confirming or disproving these results.     

Strength, flexibility, and balance characteristics of highly proficient golfers

Despite the emergence of golf-specific training programs and training aids, relatively little research has been conducted examining the physical characteristics that are important to golf performance. We studied the strength, flexibility, and balance characteristics of golfers across 3 proficiency levels based on handicap index (HCP) (<0, 1-9, and 10-20) to determine the physical characteristics unique to highly proficient golfers. A total of 257 (age: 45.5 +/- 12.8 years, height: 180.6 +/- 6.5 cm, weight: 87.9 +/- 12.6 kg) healthy, male golfers participated in the study. Testing included an assessment of strength (torso, shoulder, and hip), flexibility (torso, shoulder, and hip), and single-leg balance. Golfers in the highest proficiency group (HCP < 0) had significantly (p < 0.05) greater hip strength, torso strength, shoulder strength, shoulder flexibility, hip flexibility, torso flexibility, and balance (eyes open) than golfers in the lowest proficiency group (HCP 10-20). The results of this study demonstrate that better golfers possess unique physical characteristics that are important to greater proficiency. These characteristics have also been demonstrated to be modifiable through golf-specific training programs.     

Relationship of biomechanical factors to baseball pitching velocity: within pitcher variation

To reach the level of elite, most baseball pitchers need to consistently produce high ball velocity but avoid high joint loads at the shoulder and elbow that may lead to injury. This study examined the relationship between fastball velocity and variations in throwing mechanics within 19 baseball pitchers who were analyzed via 3-D high-speed motion analysis. Inclusion in the study required each one to demonstrate a variation in velocity of at least 1.8 m/s (range 1.8-3.5 m/s) during 6 to 10 fastball pitch trials. Three mixed model analyses were performed to assess the independent effects of 7 kinetic, 11 temporal, and 12 kinematic parameters on pitched ball velocity. Results indicated that elbow flexion torque, shoulder proximal force, and elbow proximal force were the only three kinetic parameters significantly associated with increased ball velocity. Two temporal parameters (increased time to max shoulder horizontal adduction and decreased time to max shoulder internal rotation) and three kinematic parameters (decreased shoulder horizontal adduction at foot contact, decreased shoulder abduction during acceleration, and increased trunk tilt forward at release) were significantly related to increased ball velocity. These results point to variations in an individual's throwing mechanics that relate to pitched ball velocity, and also suggest that pitchers should focus on consistent mechanics to produce consistently high fastball velocities. In addition, pitchers should strengthen shoulder and elbow musculature that resist distraction as well as improve trunk strength and flexibility to maximize pitching velocity and help prevent injury.     

Resistance training and detraining effects on flexibility performance in the elderly are intensity-dependent

The present investigation attempted to determine whether resistance exercise intensity affects flexibility and strength performance in the elderly following a 6-month resistance training and detraining period. Fifty-eight healthy, inactive older men (65- 78 yrs) were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 groups: a control group (C, n = 10), a low-intensity resistance training group (LI, n = 14, 40% of 1 repetition maximum [1RM]), a moderate-intensity resistance training group (MI, n = 12, 60% of 1RM), or a high-intensity resistance training group (HI, n = 14, 80% of 1RM). Subjects in exercise groups followed a 3 days per week, whole-body (10 exercises, 3 sets per exercise) protocol for 24 weeks. Training was immediately followed by a 24-week detraining period. Strength (bench and leg press 1RM) and range of motion in trunk, elbow, knee, shoulder, and hip joints were measured at baseline and during training and detraining. Resistance training increased upper- (34% in LI, 48% in MI, and 75% in HI) and lower-body strength (38% in LI, 53% in MI, and 63% in HI) in an intensity-dependent manner. Flexibility demonstrated an intensity-dependent enhancement (3-12% in LI, 6-22% in MI, and 8-28% in HI). Detraining caused significant losses in strength (70-98% in LI, 44-50% in MI, and 27-29% in HI) and flexibility (90-110% in LI, 30-71% in MI, and 23-51% in HI) in an intensity-dependent manner. Results indicate that resistance training by itself improves flexibility in the aged. However, intensities greater than 60% of 1RM are more effective in producing flexibility gains, and strength improvement with resistance training is also intensity-dependent. Detraining seems to reverse training strength and flexibility gains in the elderly in an intensity-dependent manner.     

Six months of supervised high-intensity low-volume resistance training improves strength independent of changes in muscle mass in young overweight men

To determine the effects of a 6-month supervised low-volume resistance training (RT) program (1 set, 85-90%, one repetition maximum, 1RM, 3 d x wk(-1)) on muscular strength (1RM) and skeletal muscle mass (SMM) in previously sedentary, overweight men on an ad libitum diet. Nineteen men were randomly assigned to a control (CON, n = 8) or RT (n = 11) group. The exercise protocol consisted of 5 upper- and 4 lower-body exercises using weight machines. CON maintained their sedentary lifestyle. One RM for upper body (chest press [CP] + lat pull-down [LPD]) and lower body (leg press [LP]) and SMM were assessed at baseline, and at 3 and 6 months. Adherence was 96 +/- 2% with an average time to complete each exercise session of 15 +/- 2 minutes. Volume completed per exercise session significantly increased from baseline (2,812 +/- 670 kg) to 6 months (6,411 +/- 2,128 kg). There was a group by time interaction in 1RM for CP, LPD, and LP. Upper-body strength increased significantly (p < 0.001) (31.3 +/- 9.3%) from baseline to 3 months and from 3 to 6 months (17.9 +/- 8.7%). Lower-body strength also increased significantly from baseline to 3 months (17.8 +/- 16.6%) and from 3 to 6 months (32.0 +/- 33.7%). No changes in upper- or lower-body strength occurred in the CON group. There was no group by time interaction for SMM (CON, 34.5 +/- 2.9 kg vs. RT, 34.2 +/- 2.9 kg; p > 0.05) or for energy intake (p > 0.05). In conclusion, a single set resistance training program at 85% of 1RM, 3 d x wk(-1) resulted in continued increases in muscular strength and a very high adherence rate over a 6-month period in sedentary, overweight men independent of significant changes in SMM. This training protocol may increase adherence and produce long-term increases in muscular fitness as part of an adult fitness program.     

Effects of strength training on muscle strength characteristics, functional capabilities, and balance in middle-aged and older women

Progressive strength training can lead to substantial increases in maximal strength and mass of trained muscles, even in older women and men, but little information is available about the effects of strength training on functional capabilities and balance. Thus, the effects of 21 weeks of heavy resistance training--including lower loads performed with high movement velocities--twice a week on isometric maximal force (ISOmax) and force-time curve (force produced in 500 milliseconds, F0-500) and dynamic 1 repetition maximum (1RM) strength of the leg extensors, 10-m walking time (10WALK) and dynamic balance test (DYN.D) were investigated in 26 middle-aged (MI; 52.8 +/- 2.4 years) and 22 older women (O; 63.8 +/- 3.8 years). 1RM, ISOmax, and F0-500 increased significantly in MI by 28 +/- 10%, 20 +/- 19%, 31 +/- 34%, and in O by 27 +/- 8%, 20 +/- 16%, 18 +/- 45%, respectively. 10WALK (MI and O, p < 0.001) shortened and DYN.D improved (MI and O, p < 0.001). The present strength-training protocol led to large increases in maximal and explosive strength characteristics of leg extensors and in walking speed, as well to an improvement in the present dynamic balance test performance in both age groups. Although training-induced increase in explosive strength is an important factor for aging women, there are other factors that contribute to improvements in dynamic balance capacity. This study indicates that total body heavy resistance training, including explosive dynamic training, may be applied in rehabilitation or preventive exercise protocols in aging women to improve dynamic balance capabilities.     

The influence of strength, flexibility, and simultaneous training on flexibility and strength gains

The purpose of this study was to examine the strength and flexibility gains after isolated or simultaneous strength and flexibility training after 16 weeks. Eighty sedentary women were randomly assigned to 1 of 4 groups: strength training (ST; n = 20), flexibility training (FLEX) (n = 20), combination of both (ST + FLEX; n = 20) and control group (CG; n = 20). All the groups performed pre and posttraining sit and reach test to verify the flexibility level and 10RM test for leg press and bench press exercises. The training protocol for all groups, except for the CG, included 3 weekly sessions, in alternated days, totaling 48 sessions. Strength training was composed of 8 exercises for upper and lower body, executed in 3 sets of periodized training. The flexibility training was composed of static stretching exercises that involved upper and lower body. Results showed that ST (30 ± 2.0 to 36 ± 3.0 cm), ST + FLEX (31 ± 1.0 to 42 ± 4.0 cm), and FLEX (32 ± 3.0 to 43 ± 2.0 cm) significantly increased in flexibility in relation to baseline and to CG (30 ± 2.0 to 30 ± 2.0 cm); however, no significant differences were observed between the treatment conditions. Strength tests demonstrated that ST and ST + FLEX significantly increased 10RM when compared to baseline, FLEX, and the CG. In conclusion, short-term strength training increases flexibility and strength in sedentary adult women. Strength training may contribute to the development and maintenance of flexibility even without the inclusion of additional stretching, but strength and flexibility can be prescribed together to get optimal improvements in flexibility.     

Females and males use different hip and knee mechanics in response to symmetric military-relevant loads

The purpose of this study was to determine if females and males use different hip and knee mechanics when walking with standardized military-relevant symmetric loads. Fifteen females and fifteen males walked on a treadmill for 2-min at a constant speed under three symmetric load conditions (unloaded: 1.71 kg, medium: 15 kg, heavy: 26 kg). Kinematic and kinetics of the hip and knee were calculated in the sagittal and frontal planes of the dominant limb. In females, hip abduction moments (normalized to total mass) and sagittal knee excursion decreased with increased load (p ≤ 0.024). In males, hip frontal excursion and adduction angle increased with load (p ≤ 0.003). Females had greater peak hip adduction angle than males in the unloaded and medium load conditions (p ≤ 0.036). Across sex, sagittal hip and knee excursion, peak knee extension angle, and peak hip and knee flexion angles increased with increased load (p ≤ 0.005). When normalized to body mass, all peak joint moments increased with each load (p ≤ 0.016) except peak hip adduction moment. When normalized to total mass, peak hip adduction moment and knee flexion, extension, and adduction moments decreased with each load (p < 0.001). While hip frontal plane kinetic alterations to load were only noted in females, kinematic changes were noted in males at the hip and females at the knee. Differences in strategies may increase the risk of hip and knee injuries in females compared to males. This study noted load and sex effects that were previously undetected, highlighting the importance of using military-relevant standardized loads and investigating frontal plane adaptations.     

Resistance training increases basal limb blood flow and vascular conductance in aging humans.

Age-related reductions in basal limb blood flow and vascular conductance are associated with the metabolic syndrome, functional impairments, and osteoporosis. We tested the hypothesis that a strength training program would increase basal femoral blood flow in aging adults. Twenty-six sedentary but healthy middle-aged and older subjects were randomly assigned to either a whole body strength training intervention group (52 +/- 2 yr, 3 men, 10 women) who underwent three supervised resistance training sessions per week for 13 wk or a control group (53 +/- 2 yr, 4 men, 9 women) who participated in a supervised stretching program. At baseline, there were no significant differences in blood pressure, cardiac output, basal femoral blood flow (via Doppler ultrasound), vascular conductance, and vascular resistance between the two groups. The strength training group increased maximal strength in all the major muscle groups tested (P < 0.05). Whole body lean body mass increased (P < 0.05) with strength training, but leg fat-free mass did not. Basal femoral blood flow and vascular conductance increased by 55-60% after strength training (both P < 0.05). No such changes were observed in the control group. In both groups, there were no significant changes in brachial blood pressure, plasma endothelin-1 and angiotensin II concentrations, femoral artery wall thickness, cardiac output, and systemic vascular resistance. Our results indicate that short-term strength training increases basal femoral blood flow and vascular conductance in healthy middle-aged and older adults.     

The relationship between core stability and performance in division I football players

The purpose of this study was to identify relationships between core stability and various strength and power variables in strength and power athletes. National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I football players (height 184.0 +/- 7.1 cm, weight 100.5 +/- 22.4 kg) completed strength and performance testing before off-season conditioning. Subjects were tested on three strength variables (one-repetition maximum [1RM] bench press, 1RM squat, and 1RM power clean), four performance variables (countermovement vertical jump [CMJ], 20- and 40-yd sprints, and a 10-yd shuttle run), and core stability (back extension, trunk flexion, and left and right bridge). Significant correlations were identified between total core strength and 20-yd sprint (r = -0.594), 40-yd sprint (r = -0.604), shuttle run (r = -0.551), CMJ (r = 0.591), power clean/body weight (BW) (r = 0.622), 1RM squat (r = -0.470), bench press/BW (r = 0.369), and combined 1RM/BW (r = 0.447); trunk flexion and 20-yd sprint (r = -0.485), 40-yd sprint (r = -0.479), shuttle run (r = -0.443), CMJ (r = 0.436), power clean/BW (r = 0.396), and 1RM squat (r = -0.416); back extension and CMJ (r = 0.536), and power clean/BW (r = 0.449); right bridge and 20-yd sprint r = -0.410) and 40-yd sprint (r = -0.435), CMJ (r = 0.403), power clean/BW (r = 0.519) and bench press/BW (r = 0.372) and combined 1RM/BW (r = 0.406); and left bridge and 20-yd sprint (r = -0.376) and 40-yd sprint (r = -0.397), shuttle run (r = -0.374), and power clean/BW (r = 0.460). The results of this study suggest that core stability is moderately related to strength and performance. Thus, increases in core strength are not going to contribute significantly to strength and power and should not be the focus of strength and conditioning.     

Relationship between countermovement jump performance and multijoint isometric and dynamic tests of strength

The purpose of this investigation was to determine the relationship between countermovement vertical jump (CMJ) performance and various methods used to assess isometric and dynamic multijoint strength. Twelve NCAA Division I-AA male football and track and field athletes (age, 19.83 +/- 1.40 years; height, 179.10 +/- 4.56 cm; mass, 90.08 +/- 14.81 kg; percentage of body fat, 11.85 +/- 5.47%) participated in 2 testing sessions. The first session involved 1 repetition maximum (1RM) (kg) testing in the squat and power clean. During the second session, peak force (N), relative peak force (N x kg(-1)), peak power (W), relative peak power (W x kg(-1)), peak velocity (m x s(-1)), and jump height (meters) in a CMJ, and peak force and rate of force development (RFD) (N x s(-1)) in a maximal isometric squat (ISO squat) and maximal isometric mid-thigh pull (ISO mid-thigh) were assessed. Significant correlations (P < or = 0.05) were found when comparing relative 1RMs (1RM/body mass), in both the squat and power clean, to relative CMJ peak power, CMJ peak velocity, and CMJ height. No significant correlations existed between the 4 measures of absolute strength, which did not account for body mass (squat 1RM, power clean 1RM, ISO squat peak force, and ISO mid-thigh peak force) when compared to CMJ peak velocity and CMJ height. In conclusion, multijoint dynamic tests of strength (squat 1RM and power clean 1RM), expressed relative to body mass, are most closely correlated with CMJ performance. These results suggest that increasing maximal strength relative to body mass can improve performance in explosive lower body movements. The squat and power clean, used in a concurrent strength and power training program, are recommended for optimizing lower body power.     

Influence of exercise order on the number of repetitions performed and perceived exertion during resistance exercise in women

The purpose of this study was to investigate the influence of different resistance exercise orders on the number of repetitions performed to failure and on the ratings of perceived exertion (RPE) in trained women. Twenty-three women with a minimum of 2 years of resistance training experience volunteered to participate in the study (age, 24.2 +/- 4.5 years; weight, 56.9 +/- 4.7 kg; height, 162.3 +/- 5.9 cm; percent body fat, 18.2 +/- 2.9%; body mass index, 22.2 +/- 2 kg x m(-2)). Data were collected in 2 phases: (a) determination of a 1 repetition maximum (1RM) for the leg-press (LP), bench press (BP), leg extension (LE), seated machine shoulder press (SP), leg curl (LC), and seated machine triceps extension (TE); and (b) execution of 3 sets, with 2-minute rest intervals between sets and exercises, until fatigue using 80% of 1RM in 2 exercise sequences of the exact opposite order--Sequence A: BP, SP, TE, LP, LE, and LC, and Sequence B: LC, LE, LP, TE, SP, and BP. The RPE (Borg CR-10) was accessed immediately after each sequence and analyzed using a Wilcoxon test. A 2-way analysis of variance with repeated measurements, followed by a post hoc Fisher least significant difference test where indicated was used to analyze the number of repetitions per set of each exercise during the 2 sequences. The RPE was not significantly different between the sequences. The mean number of repetitions per set was always less when an exercise was performed later in the exercise sequence. The data indicate that in trained women, performance of both large- and small-muscle group exercises is affected by exercise sequence.     

An examination of strength and concentric work ratios during variable range of motion training

Variable range of motion (ROM) training consists of partial ROM resistance training with the countermovement being performed at a different phase of the movement for each set. In this study, we assessed the effect of this method of training on peak force, load lifted, and concentric work performed. Six male subjects with resistance training backgrounds (age 20.2 +/- 1.3 years, height 179.4 +/- 4.6 cm, weight 89.6 +/- 9.9 kg, 6-repetition maximum [6RM] bench press 92.5 +/- 14.3 kg) participated in this study. Testing consisted of 6RM bench press strength tests during full (FULL), three quarter ((3/4)), one half ((1/2)), and one quarter ((1/4)) ROM from full elbow extension bench press performed on a Smith machine. The 6RM load, peak force (PF), and concentric work (W) performed during each ROM was examined using a one-way analysis of variance performed at an alpha level of p < 0.05. The 6RM load increased significantly as the ROM was decreased for all tests (FULL = 92.5 +/- 14.3 kg, (3/4) = 102.1 +/- 14.3 kg, (1/2) = 123.3 +/- 23.6 kg, (1/4) = 160.9 +/- 26.2 kg). PF during each test was significantly higher during the (1/4) (1924.8 +/- 557.9 N) and (1/2) (1859.4 +/- 317.1 N) ROM from full elbow extension bench press when compared with the (3/4) (1242.2 +/- 254.6 N) and FULL (1200.5 +/- 252.5 N) ROM exercise. Although higher force levels were evident, the restriction in barbell displacement resulted in a subsequent reduction in W as the lifting ROM was reduced. These results suggest that variable ROM resistance training results in increased force production as the ROM diminishes.     

Changes in maximal aerobic capacity with age in endurance-trained women: 7-yr follow-up.

On the basis of cross-sectional data, we previously reported that the absolute, but not the relative (%), rate of decline in maximal oxygen consumption (VO(2 max)) with age is greater in endurance-trained compared with healthy sedentary women. We tested this hypothesis by using a longitudinal approach. Eight sedentary (63 +/- 2 yr at follow-up) and 16 endurance-trained (57 +/- 2) women were reevaluated after a mean follow-up period of 7 yr. At baseline, VO(2 max) was ~70% higher in endurance-trained women (48.1 +/- 1.7 vs. 28.1 +/- 0.8 ml. kg(-1). min(-1). yr(-1)). At follow-up, body mass, fat-free mass, maximal respiratory exchange ratio, and maximal rating of perceived exertion were not different from baseline in either group. The absolute rate of decline in VO(2 max) was twice as great (P < 0.01) in the endurance-trained (-0.84 +/- 0.15 ml. kg(-1). min(-1). yr(-1)) vs. sedentary (-0.40 +/- 0.12 ml. kg(-1). min(-1). yr(-1)) group, but the relative rates of decline were not different (-1.8 +/- 0.3 vs. -1.5 +/- 0.4% per year). Differences in rates of decline in VO(2 max) were not related to changes in body mass or maximal heart rate. However, among endurance-trained women, the relative rate of decline in VO(2 max) was positively related to reductions in training volume (r = 0.63). Consistent with this, the age-related reduction in VO(2 max) in a subgroup of endurance-trained women who maintained or increased training volume was not different from that of sedentary women. These longitudinal data indicate that the greater decrease in maximal aerobic capacity with advancing age observed in middle-aged and older endurance-trained women in general compared with their sedentary peers is due to declines in habitual exercise in some endurance-trained women. Endurance-trained women who maintain or increase training volume demonstrated age-associated declines in maximal aerobic capacity not different from healthy sedentary women.