Ecology of marine parasites

Important ecological aspects of marine parasites are discussed. Whereas effects of parasites on host individuals sometimes leading to death are known from many groups of parasites, effects on host populations have been studied much less. Mass mortalities have been observed mainly among hosts occurring in abnormally dense populations or after introduction of parasites by man. As a result of large-scale human activities, it becomes more and more difficult to observe effects of parasites on host populations under natural conditions. Particular emphasis is laid on ecological characteristics of parasites, such as host range and specificity, microhabitats, macrohabitats, food, life span, aggregated distribution, numbers and kinds of parasites, pathogenicity and mechanisms of reproduction and infection and on how such characteristics are affected by environment and hosts. It is stressed that host specificity indices which take frequency and/or intensity of infection into account, are a better measure of restriction of parasites to certain hosts than host range which simply is the number of host species found to be infected.     

Zoogeography of Vietnamese primates

Based on geographic complementarity of congeneric taxa, the 22 species or well-defined subspecies of primates that inhabit Vietnam may be allocated to nine zoogeographic groups (lorises, two; macaques, three; langurs, three; gibbons, one). Analysis of group distributions reveals two major patterns: (1) four of the six non-macaque groups are essentially restricted to the eastern part of the Indochinese Peninsula, east of the Mekong River; and (2) species and subspecies in seven of the nine groups reach their northern or southern limits of distribution in central Vietnam, at 14–17‡N. The first pattern suggests that the Mekong River has been an important barrier to westward dispersal of nonmacaque primates in continental Southeast Asia. The second pattern suggests that a Zoogeographic barrier formerly extended east and west across Vietnam at ca. 14–17‡N.     

Increased viviparity of marine parasites at high latitudes

For the first time, Thorson's rule, that non-pelagic development increases with latitude, is shown to apply to a group of marine parasites. Relative and absolute numbers of species of viviparous Monogenea, gill parasites of fish, increase with increasing latitude. The gradient can be explained by the inability, in cold waters, of (a) free larvae to locate suitable habitats (hosts) and/ or (b) small invertebrates to produce pelagic larvae in sufficient numbers. Viviparous Monogenea are also more common in cold than in warm freshwater, but have not been fund in the deep sea.     

Zoogeography of the Southeast Asian Rotifera

The distribution and taxonomic composition of Rotifera in Southeast Asia is reviewed. For some countries, records are poor: Brunei, Cambodia and Laos are almost terra incognitafor rotifers (<10 taxa recorded), while the Thai rotifer fauna is the best documented (ca. 310 taxa on record). However, analysis of the available data is impeded by fuzzy taxonomy and the questionable reliability of many records. Most studies focus on the pelagic or littoral of freshwater habitats. Other habitats are largely ignored. Similarly, few studies deal comprehensively with illoricate Monogononta, sessile Flosculariacea and Collothecacea and, especially, Bdelloidea. The genera Lecane, Brachionus and Trichocerca are the best represented, with littoral taxa predominant. Fisheries-related studies dealing with highly productive pelagic environments tend to over report the contribution of Brachionus. Most taxa are thermophilic character, exemplified by the dominance of tropic-centred Lecaneand Brachionus. Some cold-water taxa have been recorded, but the relative climatological homogeneity of the region and low number of studies on high-altitude environments prevent the discrimination of clear latitudinal or altitudinal variation in the distribution of rotifers within Southeast Asia. The majority of Southeast Asian rotifers are widely distributed, including true cosmopolites and thermophilic taxa. There are several local or Oriental endemic Rotifera, mostly Lecane. The American Brachionus havanaensis and Keratella americana appear to have been introduced to the region. The taxonomy of some Rotifera described from the region is commented upon; Brachionus murphyiSudzuki is recognised as senior synonym of B. niwati Sanoamuang et al. (syn. nov.). Some cases of geographical and/or ecological vicariant species-pairs are suggested. The Southeast Asian rotifer fauna contains a sizeable fraction of taxa occurring in the tropical regions of the Old World, most of which also occur in tropical Australia or the Austro-Malayan region. A tropical Australasian faunal component is present, but consists of few taxa only. Hence, affinities between the rotifer fauna of the Ethiopian, Oriental and tropical Australian and Austro-Malayan regions are supported, rather than an affinity between the Indo-Asian or Indo-Malaysian and tropical Australian fauna.     

Influences of parasites and thermoregulation on grouping tendencies in marine iguanas

I determined whether grouping behavior influences parasite loadand bodytemperature of Galápagos marine iguanas,reptilesthat rest gregariously. Mobile (or predatory) Ornithodorosticks(4.7 mm average body length) approached at a ground speed of65 cm/minand parasitized sleeping marine iguanas for 3.7 hper night, drawing about 0.1ml blood. Contagiously transmittedAmblyomma ticks hang on to iguanahosts for days or weeks. Marineiguanas sleeping alone had 2.0 mobile ticksper night, whileindividuals sleeping in groups had 0.1 to 1.1 mobile tickspernight. Single iguanas decreased their mobile parasite load to0.2 ticksper night by sleeping on bushes. Experimental nightlytranslocation of iguanasto areas without other sleeping iguanassignificantly increased their mobileparasite burden above levelsencountered by naturally single individuals(n = 4.6 ticks pernight). Creating an experimental group of twoanimals reducedinfestation with mobile ticks by 59% compared to levelson singleanimals. Over the course of weeks, mobile ectoparasite loadsatgrouping sites increased to levels found at single sites,at which pointmarine iguanas changed sleeping sites. Groupinghad no effect on theprevalence of contagious ticks. Furthermore,grouping did not help to conservebody temperature in Genovesaiguanas, as measured by radiotelemetry. Iconclude that marineiguanas group during daytime at microhabitats favored forthermoregulation(predation is absent in this population). Thermoregulationwasnot of prime importance for nightly aggregations, which insteadserved toreduce mobile ectoparasite load. As a minimum costof infestation, I estimatethat individuals sleeping alone wouldhave a 5.4% lower annual energybudget due to tissue removal,not including potential internal infections.     

The Zoogeography of Mammalian Basal Metabolic Rate

Zoogeographical effects on the basal metabolic rate (BMR) of 487 mammal species were analyzed using conventional and phylogenetically independent ANCOVA. Minimal BMR variance occurred at a "constrained body mass" of 358 g, whereas maximum variance occurred at the smallest and largest body masses. Significant differences in BMR were identified for similar-sized mammals from the six terrestrial zoogeographical zones (Afrotropical, Australasian, Indomalayan, Nearctic, Neotropical, and Palearctic). Nearctic and Palearctic mammals had higher basal rates than their Afrotropical, Australasian, Indomalayan, and Neotropical counterparts. Desert mammals had lower basal rates than mesic mammals. The patterns were interpreted with a conceptual model describing geographical BMR variance in terms of the influence of latitudinal and zonal climate variability. Low and high basal rates were explained in unpredictable and predictable environments, respectively, especially in small mammals. The BMR of large mammals may be influenced in addition by mobility and predation constraints. Highly mobile mammals tend to have high BMRs that may somehow facilitate fast running speeds, whereas less mobile mammals are generally dietary specialists and are often armored. The model thus integrates physiological and ecological criteria and makes predictions concerning body size and life-history evolution, island effects, and locomotor energetics.     

A bibliography of parasites and diseases of marine and freshwater fishes of India

A total of 531 references on the parasites and diseases of marine and freshwater fishes of India which appeared in 90 scientific journals have been documented.     

Fish introduction and parasites in marine ecosystems: a need for information

Invasive species provide unique and useful systems by which to examine various ecological and evolutionary issues, both in terms of the effects on native environments and the subsequent evolutionary impacts. While biological invasions are an increasing agent of change in aquatic systems, alien species also act as vectors for new parasites and diseases. To date, colonizations by hosts and parasites have not been treated and reviewed together, although both are usually interwoven in various ways and may have unpredictable negative consequences. Fish are widely introduced worldwide and are convenient organisms to study parasites and diseases. We report a global overview of fish invasions with associated parasitological data. Data available on marine and freshwater are in sharp contrast. While parasites and diseases of inland freshwater fish, ornamental, reared and anadromous fish species are well documented, leading to the emergence of several evolutionary hypotheses in freshwater ecosystems during the last decade, the transfer of such organisms are virtually unexplored in marine ecosystems. The paucity of information available on the parasites of introduced marine fish reflects the paucity of information currently available on parasites of non-indigenous species in marine ecosystems. However, such information is crucial as it can allow estimations of the extent to which freshwater epidemiology/evolution can be directly transferred to marine systems, providing guidelines for adapting freshwater control to the marine environment.     

Zoogeography of the shorefish fauna of Clipperton Atoll

One hundred and fifteen species of fishes (14 oceanic, plus 101 shore and nearshore species) are known from Clipperton Island, a small, remote coral atoll in the tropical eastern Pacific (TEP). This fish fauna includes only 14% of the region's shallow-water species, and also is depauperate relative to the fish faunas of other isolated tropical islands. The island's isolation, small size, reduced habitat diversity, and oceanic environment contribute to this paucity of species.Fifty-two species at Clipperton can be identified as TEP; these include 37 widespread species, six species shared only with the Revillagigedo Islands [the nearest (950 km) offshore shoals], and eight endemic to Clipperton. Endemics species apparently have a mix of west and east Pacific origins. Sixty-three species are transpacific; they include three new records (of Naso surgeonfishes) that maybe vagrants recruited > 4,000 km from Oceania.Clipperton is situated at the juncture between the TEP and Oceania. Its fish fauna contains about equal numbers of TEP and transpacific species. This faunal structure reflects the relative influence of surface currents from Oceania and the TEP. Although most of Clipperton's transpacific shorefishes are widespread in eastern Oceania, the Clipperton fauna has specific affinities to the fauna of the Line Islands, which are located within the main eastbound current from Oceania. Clipperton may therefore be a major stepping stone for dispersal between Oceania and the remainder of the TEP. About 50% of the non-oceanic, tropical transpacific fishes occur there, and at least 75 % of those species apparently have resident populations at the island.     

Allee effects may slow the spread of parasites in a coastal marine ecosystem

Allee effects are thought to mediate the dynamics of population colonization, particularly for invasive species. However, Allee effects acting on parasites have rarely been considered in the analogous process of infectious disease establishment and spread. We studied the colonization of uninfected wild juvenile Pacific salmon populations by ectoparasitic salmon lice (Lepeophtheirus salmonis) over a 4-year period. In a data set of 68,376 fish, we observed 85 occurrences of precopular pair formation among 1,259 preadult female and 613 adult male lice. The probability of pair formation was dependent on the local abundance of lice, but this mate limitation is likely offset somewhat by mate-searching dispersal of males among host fish. A mathematical model of macroparasite population dynamics that incorporates the empirical results suggests a high likelihood of a demographic Allee effect, which can cause the colonizing parasite populations to die out. These results may provide the first empirical evidence for Allee effects in a macroparasite. Furthermore, the data give a rare detailed view of Allee effects in colonization dynamics and suggest that Allee effects may dampen the spread of parasites in a coastal marine ecosystem.     

Zoogeography of parasitic Copepoda of the New Zealand region

The islands of New Zealand are believed to be fragments from the Gondwanaland supercontinent that are now over 2 000 km from either Australia or Antarctica. Despite this, the marine fish parasitic copepod fauna is neither isolated nor distinctive, but reflects the southward extension of the tropical Indo-Pacific fauna and also the circumpolar element. Only one of the 49 known genera, representing 18 families, is endemic and speciation within all the families is low.Although the origin of the marine fish parasitic copepod fauna can be explained in terms of host dispersal patterns, the derivation of the euryhahne endemic Abergasilus and the freshwater Paeonodes and Thersitina is still an enigma.The copepod associates of the invertebrates are still virtually unknown and no conclusions can be drawn.     

Zoogeography and biodiversity of the freshwater fishes of Southeast Asia

The ichthyofauna of the freshwater system of Southeast Asia is extremely diverse. A recent estimate of about 1000 species is probably an understatement. More than 10 new species are being added to the list annually. The distribution pattern of the Southeast Asian freshwater fishes can be divided into five zoogeographic regions. The first one is the Salween basin in Burma, with fishes mainly of the Indian subcontinent origin such as Amblypharyngodon atkinsoni, Bangana almorae and Brachydanio jayarami. The second zoogeographic area is the Mekong, Chao Phraya and Mae Khlong drainages which harbour fishes typical of the mainland of Southeast Asia such as Acanthorhodeus deignani, Barbichthys nitidus and Cirrhinus siamensis. The Malay Peninsula is the third region whose species composition is heavily influenced by the Siamese (such as Homaloptera smithi, Tuberoschistura baenzigeri and Botia beauforti) and Indonesian (such as Botia hymenophysa, Luciocephalus pulcher and Parosphromenus deissneri) elements. The islands of Sumatra, Borneo and Java are the fourth zoogeographic area of fish distribution. These islands show a high degree of endemism, especially in fishes of the family Belontiidae. Finally, the freshwater system of the Philippines is the last zoogeographic region of Southeast Asia. The area is characterized by the presence of closely related species of the cyprinids especially in Lake Lanao. Currently, high diversity of these freshwater fishes is being threatened by land development, such as deforestation, road construction and land expansion for plantation. Recent studies in the Gombak River basin show the extermination of 41 per cent of native fish species from 1969 to 1990. This is probably due to the construction of highways, logging, as well as land clearing for agriculture.     

A simple molecular technique for identifying marine host fish by sequencing blood-feeding parasites

Gnathiid isopods are common ectoparasites of fish on the Great Barrier Reef, Australia. While screening for appropriate markers for phylogenetic studies of gnathiids, we found that primers for 12S and 16S rDNA preferentially amplified the host fish DNA instead of gnathiid DNA. This amplification occurred even when using gnathiids that were not engorged with host blood and adult gnathiids that do not feed on fish blood. This method could be used in host-parasite studies to identify hosts without having to sample parasites directly from the host (which can be costly and requires considerable skill in a marine environment). Target ribosomal DNA sequences can be amplified from total DNA extracted from parasites that are captured in funnel traps or plankton tows. Sequence data from these can be used to identify the hosts that gnathiids were feeding on before capture.     

Zoogeography and life cycle patterns of Mediterranean hydromedusae (Gnidaria)

The distribution of the 346 hydromedusan species hitherto recorded from the Mediterranean is considered, dividing the species into zoogeographical groups. The consequences for dispersal due to possession or lack of a medusa stage in the life cycle are discussed, and related to actual known distributions. There is contradictory evidence for an influence of life cycle patterns on species distribution. The Mediterranean hydromedusan fauna is composed of 19.5% endemic species. Their origin is debatable. The majority of the remaining Mediterranean species is present in the Atlantic, with various world distributions, and could have entered the Mediterranean from Gibraltar after the Messinian crisis. Only 8.0% of the fauna is classified as Indo-Pacific, the species being mainly restricted to the eastern basin, some of which have presumably migrated from the Red Sea via the Suez Canal, being then classifiable as Lessepsian migrants. The importance of historical and climatic factors in determining the composition of the Mediterranean fauna of hydromedusae is discussed.     

Trichodinid parasites (Ciliophora: Peritricha) from the gills of some Australian marine fishes

Three species of the genus Trichodina are reported from the gills of marine fishes in south-eastern Tasmania, Australia. Two of these species are new: T. australis n. sp. from five atherinid fish species, Atherinosoma microstoma, Leptatherina presbyteroides, Kestratherina brevirostris, K. esox and K. hepsetoides; and T. nesogobii n. sp. from Nesogobius sp. 1. One previously reported species, T. jadranica Raabe, 1958, was also found on Nesogobius sp. 1.     

Adaptive radiation within marine anisakid nematodes: a zoogeographical modeling of cosmopolitan, zoonotic parasites

Parasites of the nematode genus Anisakis are associated with aquatic organisms. They can be found in a variety of marine hosts including whales, crustaceans, fish and cephalopods and are known to be the cause of the zoonotic disease anisakiasis, a painful inflammation of the gastro-intestinal tract caused by the accidental consumptions of infectious larvae raw or semi-raw fishery products. Since the demand on fish as dietary protein source and the export rates of seafood products in general is rapidly increasing worldwide, the knowledge about the distribution of potential foodborne human pathogens in seafood is of major significance for human health. Studies have provided evidence that a few Anisakis species can cause clinical symptoms in humans. The aim of our study was to interpolate the species range for every described Anisakis species on the basis of the existing occurrence data. We used sequence data of 373 Anisakis larvae from 30 different hosts worldwide and previously published molecular data (n = 584) from 53 field-specific publications to model the species range of Anisakis spp., using a interpolation method that combines aspects of the alpha hull interpolation algorithm as well as the conditional interpolation approach. The results of our approach strongly indicate the existence of species-specific distribution patterns of Anisakis spp. within different climate zones and oceans that are in principle congruent with those of their respective final hosts. Our results support preceding studies that propose anisakid nematodes as useful biological indicators for their final host distribution and abundance as they closely follow the trophic relationships among their successive hosts. The modeling might although be helpful for predicting the likelihood of infection in order to reduce the risk of anisakiasis cases in a given area.