Crystallization and preliminary X-ray diffraction studies of a pea lectin-methyl 3,6-di-O-(alpha-D-mannopyranosyl)-alpha-D-mannopyranoside complex

The seed lectin isolated from garden peas (Pisum sativum) has been co-crystallized with methyl 3,6-di-O-(alpha-D-mannopyranosyl)-alpha-D-mannopyranoside in the orthorhombic space group P2(1)2(1)2(1) with unit cell dimensions a = 64.3 A, b = 73.4 A and C = 108.5 A. The asymmetric unit contains one pea lectin dimer (alpha 2 beta 2). The crystals are suitable for high-resolution structure analysis.     

The crystal structure of pea lectin at 3.0-A resolution

The structure of pea lectin has been determined to 3.0-A resolution based on multiple isomorphous replacement phasing to 6.0-A resolution and a combination of single isomorphous replacement, anomalous scattering, and density modification to 3.0-A resolution. The pea lectin model has been optimized by restrained least squares refinement against the data between 7.0- and 3.0-A resolution. The final model at 3.0 A gives an R factor of 0.24 and a root mean square deviation from ideal bond distances of 0.02 A. The two monomers in the asymmetric unit are related by noncrystallographic 2-fold symmetry to form a dimer. Monomers were treated independently in modeling and refinement, but are found to be virtually identical at this resolution. The molecular structure of the pea lectin monomer is very similar to that of concanavalin A, the lectin from the jack bean. Similarities extend from secondary and tertiary structures to the occurrence of a cis-peptide bond and the pattern of coordination of the Ca2+ and Mn2+ ions. Differences between the two lectin structures are confined primarily to the loop regions and to the chain termini, which are different and give rise to the unusual permuted relationship between the pea lectin and concanavalin A protein sequences.     

X-ray crystal structure determination and refinement at 1.9 A resolution of isolectin I from the seeds of Lathyrus ochrus

Orthorhombic crystals of isolectin I (LOLI) from the seeds of Lathyrus ochrus were first obtained during the STS 29 space shuttle mission. Subsequently, isostructural crystals were also obtained in the laboratory. They belong to the space group P2(1)2(1)2, with cell dimensions a = 135.84 A, b = 63.12 A and c = 54.54 A with one functional entity, a dimer, in the asymmetric unit (Vm = 2.2 A3/Da). The three-dimensional structure of LOLI, which was solved by the molecular replacement method using a 3 A resolution model of pea lectin, has subsequently been refined by using crystallographic data between 8.0 A and 1.9 A resolution, coupled to molecular dynamics and energy minimization techniques. The conventional R-factor is 0.185 for Fo greater than 1 sigma(Fo). The final model includes 220 well-defined water molecules and has root-mean-square deviations from ideal bond distances and angles of 0.004 A and 3 degrees, respectively. Only slight conformation differences have been found between the two alpha beta monomers. The molecular structure of LOLI, the first to be determined from the genus Lathyrus, is very similar to those of concanavalin A, pea lectin and favin. Differences are confined to the loop regions and beta-chain termini. Comparison of equivalent C alpha atom positions between our final model and the pea lectin structure shows slight differences in the association of the two monomers, which are probably due to the different environments in the crystals. The root-mean-square deviation between C alpha atoms of LOLI and pea lectin is 0.40 A. The metal binding sites are very similar in pea lectin, concanavalin A and LOLI. The sugar-binding sites of LOLI are occupied by four well-ordered water molecules each. The cleavage site for one of the monomers is specially well defined in the final electron density map: the amino group of Glul (alpha) seems to form a salt bridge with the carboxylate group of the terminal Asn181 (beta). A detailed analysis of the difference in crystal packing contacts between pea lectin and LOLI shows that, as might be expected, several of the intermolecular interactions are mediated by residues that correspond to substitutions in the LOLI amino acid sequence.     

Immunolocalization of PsNLEC-1, a lectin-like glycoprotein expressed in developing pea nodules.

The pea (Pisum sativum) nodule lectin gene PsNlec1 is a member of the legume lectin gene family that is strongly expressed in infected pea nodule tissue. A full-length cDNA sequence of PsNlec1 was expressed in Escherichia coli and a specific antiserum was generated from the purified protein. Immunoblotting of material from isolated symbiosomes revealed that the glycoprotein was present in two antigenic isoforms, PsNLEC-1A and PsNLEC-1B. The N-terminal sequence of isoform A showed homology to an eight-amino acid propeptide sequence previously identified from the cDNA sequence of isoform B. In nodule homogenates the antiserum recognized an additional fast-migrating band, PsNLEC-1C. Fractionation studies indicated that PsNLEC-1C was associated with a 100,000 g nodule membrane fraction, suggesting an association with cytoplasmic membrane or vesicles. Immunogold localization in pea nodule tissue sections demonstrated that the PsNLEC-1 antigen was present in the symbiosome compartment and also in the vacuole but revealed differences in distribution between infected host cells in different parts of the nodule. These data suggest that PsNLEC-1 is subject to posttranslational modification and that the various antigenic isoforms can be used to monitor membrane and vesicle targeting during symbiosome development.     

Time resolved spectroscopy of the tryptophyl fluorescence of the E. coli LAC repressor.

A new crystal form of a mitogenic lectin from pea seeds ($\text{Pisum sativum}$) has been obtained which is suitable for high resolution structural work. The crystals are orthorhombic, space group P2₁2₁2₁, with unit cell dimensions: $\text{a}$ = 64.2Å, $\text{b}$ = 72. 7Å, $\text{c}$ = 108. 3Å. The asymmetric unit contains one protein molecule.     

Overproduction, crystallization, and preliminary X-ray diffraction studies of the major cold shock protein from Bacillus subtilis, CspB.

The major cold shock protein from Bacillus subtilis (CspB) was overexpressed using the bacteriophage T7 RNA polymerase/promoter system and purified to apparent homogeneity from recombinant Escherichia coli cells. CspB was crystallized in two different forms using vapor diffusion methods. The first crystal form obtained with ammonium sulfate as precipitant belongs to the trigonal crystal system, space group P3(1)21 (P3(2)21) with unit cell dimensions a = b = 59.1 A and c = 46.4 A. The second crystal form is tetragonal, space group P4(1)2(1)2 (P4(3)2(1)2) with unit cell dimensions a = b = 56.9 A and c = 53.0 A. These crystals grow with polyethylene glycol 4000 as precipitant.     

Crystallization, activity assay and preliminary X-ray diffraction analysis of the uncleaved form of the serpin antichymotrypsin.

Crystals of recombinant wild-type antichymotrypsin have been prepared by the method of vapor diffusion with polyethylene glycol 4000 as a precipitant at pH 5.7. Two crystal forms are observed. One form belongs to tetragonal space group P4(3)2(1)2 (or P4(1)2(1)2) and has unit cell dimensions a = b = 126 A, c = 243 A, with two molecules in the asymmetric unit. The other crystal form belongs to orthorhombic space group P2(1)2(1)2(1) and has unit cell parameters of a = 73 A, b = 78 A and c = 80 A, with one molecular in the asymmetric unit. Diffraction intensity measurements have been made on the tetragonal crystal form to a limiting resolution of 4.1 A, and reflections have been observed on X-ray still photographs to a limiting resolution of 2.5 A for the orthorhombic form. An activity assay of redissolved tetragonal form crystals indicates that the uncleaved, functional serpin has been crystallized.     

A furin-like convertase mediates propeptide cleavage of BACE, the Alzheimer's beta -secretase

The novel transmembrane aspartic protease BACE (for Beta-site APP Cleaving Enzyme) is the beta-secretase that cleaves amyloid precursor protein to initiate beta-amyloid formation. As such, BACE is a prime therapeutic target for the treatment of Alzheimer's disease. BACE, like other aspartic proteases, has a propeptide domain that is removed to form the mature enzyme. BACE propeptide cleavage occurs at the sequence RLPR downward arrowE, a potential furin recognition motif. Here, we explore the role of furin in BACE propeptide domain processing. BACE propeptide cleavage in cells does not appear to be autocatalytic, since an inactive D93A mutant of BACE is still cleaved appropriately. BACE and furin co-localize within the Golgi apparatus, and propeptide cleavage is inhibited by brefeldin A and monensin, drugs that disrupt trafficking through the Golgi. Treatment of cells with the calcium ionophore, leading to inhibition of calcium-dependent proteases including furin, or transfection with the alpha(1)-antitrypsin variant alpha(1)-PDX, a potent furin inhibitor, dramatically reduces cleavage of the BACE propeptide. Moreover, the BACE propeptide is not processed in the furin-deficient LoVo cell line; however, processing is restored upon furin transfection. Finally, in vitro digestion of recombinant soluble BACE with recombinant furin results in complete cleavage only at the established E46 site. Taken together, our results strongly suggest that furin, or a furin-like proprotein convertase, is responsible for cleaving the BACE propeptide domain to form the mature enzyme.     

Pea lectin is correctly processed,stable and active in leaves of transgenic potato plants

A gene encoding the preproprotein of the pea (Pisum sativum) lectin was expressed in transgenic potato plants using a cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV) 35S promoter or a tobacco ribulose bisphosphate carboxylase small subunit (ssRubisco) promoter. Presence of the pea lectin to levels greater than 1% of total soluble leaf protein was detected by radioimmunoassay (RIA). The pattern of expression derived from the two promoters was established using both RIA and a squash-blot immunolocalisation technique. Western blotting demonstrated that the preproprotein was correctly processed, generating and subunits that assembled to give an isolectin form observed in pea seeds and roots. It was also found that the haemagglutination activity and specificity of pea lectin synthesised in transgenic potato leaves was comparable to purified lectin from pea cotyledons.     

Crystalline ricin D, a toxic anti-tumor lectin from seeds of Ricinus communis

A toxic lectin, ricin D, present in the seeds of Ricinus communis has been purified and crystallized in a form suitable for high resolution crystallographic structure studies. This protein is different from a previously found form of ricin (also present in the same seeds), the only ricin for which a preliminary x-ray investigation has been reported so far. Ricin D crystallizes from an aqueous solution in an orthorhombic unit cell of symmetry P2(1)2(1)2(1) and a = 79.0, b = 114.7, and c = 72.8 A. The asymmetric unit contains one molecule with an average molecular weight of 62,400. The crystal is fairly stable to x-radiation and has a water content of approximately 54% by volume. It appears to comprise two closely related species of proteins, the major species corresponding to recin D and the other presumably corresponding to a deamidation product of ricin D. The two species have nearly identical molecular size and amino acid compositions, but different charges.     

Favin, a crystalline lectin from Vicia faba

A lectin from the fava bean (Vicia faba) has been purified and crystallized in a form suitable for high-resolution crystallographic structure analysis. This protein binds glucose- and mannose-like saccharides, and it is mitogenic for lymphocytes. The fava lectin crystallizes in the orthorhombic space group. P2₁2₁2₁ with unit cell dimensions $\text{a = 90.0, b = 89.3,}\text{and}\text{c = 67.4}\text{A}\text{?}$. The mass of protein in the asymmetric unit is 53,000 daltons, corresponding to the molecular weight of the protein in solution.     

Crystallization and preliminary X-ray diffraction studies of bovine recombinant immune interferon

Reproducible conditions have been established for the crystallization of recombinant bovine immune interferon. Two cystalline forms of this protein were obtained. A tetragonal form, space group P422, with unit cell dimensions a = b = 59.0 A and c = 125.7 A and an orthorhombic form, space group P2(1)2(1)2(1), with unit cell dimensions a = 42.80 A, b = 79.90 A and c = 85.64 A were obtained under similar crystallization conditions. The orthorhombic form diffracts to 2.6 A resolution, contains a single interferon dimer in the asymmetric unit of structure and is suitable for X-ray diffraction analysis.     

Purification,crystallization, and preliminary X-ray studies on the rhizome lectin from stinging nettle and its complex with NN′N″-triacetylchitotriose

Single crystals were grown from affinity-purified stinging nettle lectin and from its complex with the specific trisaccharide NN′N″ -triacetylchitotriose by vapor diffusion at room temperature. The lectin crystallizes in space group P2₁2₁2₁ with unit cell dimensions a = 54.3 (1) Å, b = 62.2 (1) Å, and c = 92.4 (2) Å, and diffracts to 3.0 Å resolution. The asymmetric unit contains three lectin monomers. The crystals of the lectin-trisaccharide complex have space group P2₁2₁2₁ with cell constants a = 37.69 (4) Å, b = 48.97 (6) Å, and c = 57.32 (4) Å. These crystals diffract to at least 2.0 Å resolution and the asymmetric unit contains one lectin monomer. A three-dimensional X-ray structure determination is on its way. © 1993 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Production of pea lectin in Escherichia coli

In order to explore the molecular basis for the glycopeptide specificity of legume lectins, we have developed an experimental system in which specific amino acid alterations can be introduced into the carbohydrate binding site of pea lectin. This system is based on the production of pea lectin in Escherichia coli. The plasmid coding for the lectin was constructed from two lectin cDNA sequences isolated from Pisum sativum seeds (Higgins, T. J. V., Chandler, P. M., Zurawski, G., Button, S. C., and Spencer, D. (1983) J. Biol. Chem. 258, 9544-9549) and an expression vector based on the gene for the outer membrane lipoprotein of E. coli (Nakamura, K., and Inouye, M. (1982) EMBO J. 1, 771-775). The lectin is produced as a single polypeptide chain and forms insoluble aggregates in E. coli cells (2-5 mg/liter). Functional lectin is recovered by solubilization of the aggregates in guanidinium hydrochloride, renaturation in the presence of MnCl2 and CaCl2, and affinity purification on Sephadex. This procedure yields a homogeneous 28,000-dalton protein. Comparison of the recombinant lectin with natural pea lectin in an inhibition of hemagglutination assay demonstrated that there is no detectable difference in the carbohydrate binding properties of the two lectins.     

Crystallization, X-ray diffraction analysis and phasing of carboxylesterase PA3859 from Pseudomonas aeruginosa

We have recently purified an intracellular carboxylesterase encoded by the open reading frame PA3859 of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Among proteins showing a significant sequence homology with PA3859 the in vivo function is only known for the human acyl-protein thioesterase I that is involved in the deacylation of Galpha proteins. The crystal structure determination of P. aeruginosa carboxylesterase is expected to provide insights into its physiological role. Therefore, the PA3859 gene was cloned and heterologously expressed in Escherichia coli as N-terminally 6xHis tagged recombinant protein. Here, we present the crystallization, X-ray diffraction analysis and phasing of this enzyme. Two crystal forms were obtained by the hanging drop vapor diffusion method. Crystals of form I belong to the space group P2(1) with cell dimensions of a=65.65, b=50.55, c=142.55 A, beta=92.9 degrees and diffracted, upon flash annealing, up to a resolution of 2.9 A. Two dimers are present in the asymmetric unit. Crystals of form II belong to space group P2(1)2(1)2, with unit cell dimensions of a=96.42, b=96.36, c=68.04 A and diffracted up to 2.1 A resolution. One dimer is present in the asymmetric unit.     

The chemical characterization of favin, a lectin isolated from Vicia faba.

We have determined the subunit structure of the glucose- and mannose-binding lectin favin, from Vicia faba. The molecule is composed of two nonidentical polypeptide chains held together by noncovalent interactions. We have determined the complete amino acid sequence of the smaller alpha chain (Mr = 5,571) and shown that it is homologous to the alpha chain of the lectins from lentil and pea and to residues 72 to 120 of concanavalin A (Con A). The larger beta chain (Mr = 20,000) contains carbohydrate and is homologous to the beta chain of lentil, pea, soybean, peanut, and red kidney bean lectins and is homologous to a portion of the Con A molecule beginning at residue 122. Favin also contains a minor component, beta' (Mr = 18,700), that closely resembles the beta chain but lacks carbohydrate and may, on the basis of apparent molecular weight, lack some part of the COOH-terminal region of the polypeptide chain. Although favin is similar to Con A, it, like the lentil and pea lectins, appears to lack residues corresponding to positions 1 to 71 of Con A. Because these residues contribute significantly to the carbohydrate binding site of Con A, the lack of this region in the otherwise homologous lectin favin suggests that the carbohydrate binding site of favin differs from that of Con A or that the region represented by residues 1 to 71 of Con A is located in a different portion (i.e. in the beta chain) of the favin molecule.     

Interaction of a potential vacuolar targeting receptor with amino- and carboxyl-terminal targeting determinants.

A protein of 80 kD from developing pea (Pisum sativum) cotyledons has previously been shown to exhibit characteristics of a vacuolar targeting receptor by means of its affinity for the amino-terminal vacuolar targeting sequence of proaleurain from barley (Hordeum vulgare). In this report we show that the same protein also binds to the amino-terminal targeting peptide of prosporamin from sweet potato (Ipomoea batatas) and to the carboxyl-terminal targeting determinant of pro-2S albumin from Brazil nut (Bertholletia excelsa). The receptor protein does not bind to the carboxyl-terminal propeptide (representing the targeting sequence) of barley lectin. The binding of the 80-kD protein to the sporamin determinant involves a motif (NPIR) that has been shown to be crucial for vacuolar targeting in vivo. The binding to the carboxyl-terminal targeting determinant of pro-2S albumin appears to involve the carboxyl-terminal propeptide and the adjacent five amino acids of the mature protein. The 80-kD protein does not bind to peptide sequences that have been shown to be incompetent in directing vacuolar targeting.     

Isolation, characterization, and preliminary X-ray diffraction data for a serine protease from Penicillium cyclopium

The major extracellular protein of Penicillium cyclopium has been isolated from its culture media and purified by ammonium sulfate fractionation, gel, and ion-exchange chromatography. We show this secreted protein to be endopeptidase. The molecular weight is approximately 32,000, the pI is 5.0, and the pH optimum using a variety of protein and synthetic substrates is around 7.0. Inhibition studies show that the protease is not inhibited by pepstatin nor by p-chloromercuribenzoic acid, indicating, respectively, that it is not an aspartyl protease nor a thiol protease. Complete inhibition is observed, however, with phenylmethanesulfonyl fluoride. Three crystal forms suitable for high resolution x-ray diffraction studies have been obtained from this purified protease with reflections being observed to well beyond 3.0 A resolution. One form having a needle morphology is of the orthorhombic crystal class and has space group P2(1)2(1)2(1). The unit cell dimensions are a = 41.9 A, b = 43.2 A, and c = 111.5 A with 1 molecule of the protease occurring in the asymmetric unit. The second form grown at pH values less than 6.0 has a plate morphology, is of orthorhombic space group P2(1)2(1)2(1), and has unit cell dimensions a = 59.12 A, b = 62.33 A, and c = 70.62 A. The third form is polyhedral in habit, is also of space group P2(1)2(1)2(1), and appears when the pH of the mother liquor is greater than 7.0. The cell dimensions of this crystal form are a = 57.07 A, b = 58.82 A, c = 70.79 A, and again there is 1 molecule/asymmetric unit. Three-dimensional structural analysis by x-ray diffraction is now underway. All crystal forms are somewhat denser than the norm having mass to volume ratios of 1.58, 2.00, and 1.85 A3/dalton, respectively.     

Heterologous rhizobial lipochitin oligosaccharides and chitin oligomers induce cortical cell divisions in red clover roots, transformed with the pea lectin gene

Division of cortical cells in roots of leguminous plants is triggered by lipochitin oligosaccharides (LCOs) secreted by the rhizobial microsymbiont. Previously, we have shown that presence of pea lectin in transgenic white clover hairy roots renders these roots susceptible to induction of root nodule formation by pea-specific rhizobia (C. L. Díaz, L. S. Melchers, P. J. J. Hooykaas, B. J. J. Lugtenberg, and J. W. Kijne, Nature 338:579-581, 1989). Here, we report that pea lectin-transformed red clover hairy roots form nodule primordium-like structures after inoculation with pea-, alfalfa-, and Lotus-specific rhizobia, which normally do not nodulate red clover. External application of a broad range of purified LCOs showed all of them to be active in induction of cortical cell divisions and cell expansion in a radial direction, resulting in formation of structures that resemble nodule primordia induced by clover-specific rhizobia. This activity was obvious in about 50% of the red clover plants carrying hairy roots transformed with the pea lectin gene. Also, chitopentaose, chitotetraose, chitotriose, and chitobiose were able to induce cortical cell divisions and cell expansion in a radial direction in transgenic roots, but not in control roots. Sugar-binding activity of pea lectin was essential for its effect. These results show that transformation of red clover roots with pea lectin results in a broadened response of legume root cortical cells to externally applied potentially mitogenic oligochitin signals.     

Crystallization and preliminary X-ray diffraction results of snowdrop (Galanthus nivalis) lectin

Well-ordered single crystals have been grown for a mannose-specific lectin from snowdrop (Galanthus nivalis) bulbs in the presence of methyl-alpha-D-mannoside. The space group symmetry is consistent with the orthorhombic space group P2(1)2(1)2(1). The unit cell parameters are a = 140.0 A, b = 64.7 A, c = 62.0 A. The asymmetric unit can accommodate a tetramer. The functional molecule (50,000 daltons) consists of four identical subunits and is highly specific for alpha 1,3-linked mannose oligosaccharides.