Top predators as biodiversity regulators: the dingo Canis lupus dingo as a case study

Top‐order predators often have positive effects on biological diversity owing to their key functional roles in regulating trophic cascades and other ecological processes. Their loss has been identified as a major factor contributing to the decline of biodiversity in both aquatic and terrestrial systems. Consequently, restoring and maintaining the ecological function of top predators is a critical global imperative. Here we review studies of the ecological effects of the dingo Canis lupus dingo, Australia's largest land predator, using this as a case study to explore the influence of a top predator on biodiversity at a continental scale. The dingo was introduced to Australia by people at least 3500 years ago and has an ambiguous status owing to its brief history on the continent, its adverse impacts on livestock production and its role as an ecosystem architect. A large body of research now indicates that dingoes regulate ecological cascades, particularly in arid Australia, and that the removal of dingoes results in an increase in the abundances and impacts of herbivores and invasive mesopredators, most notably the red fox Vulpes vulpes. The loss of dingoes has been linked to widespread losses of small and medium‐sized native mammals, the depletion of plant biomass due to the effects of irrupting herbivore populations and increased predation rates by red foxes. We outline a suite of conceptual models to describe the effects of dingoes on vertebrate populations across different Australian environments. Finally, we discuss key issues that require consideration or warrant research before the ecological effects of dingoes can be incorporated formally into biodiversity conservation programs.     

Keystone effects of an alien top-predator stem extinctions of native mammals

Alien predators can have catastrophic effects on ecosystems and are thought to be much more harmful to biodiversity than their native counterparts. However, trophic cascade theory and the mesopredator release hypothesis predict that the removal of top predators will result in the reorganization of trophic webs and loss of biodiversity. Using field data collected throughout arid Australia, we provide evidence that removal of an alien top-predator, the dingo, has cascading effects through lower trophic levels. Dingo removal was linked to increased activity of herbivores and an invasive mesopredator, the red fox (Vulpes vulpes), and to the loss of grass cover and native species of small mammals. Using species distribution data, we predict that reintroducing or maintaining dingo populations would produce a net benefit for the conservation of threatened native mammals across greater than 2.42 × 10⁶ km² of Australia. Our study provides evidence that an alien top predator can assume a keystone role and be beneficial for biodiversity conservation, and also that mammalian carnivores more generally can generate strong trophic cascades in terrestrial ecosystems.     

Apex predator suppression is linked to restructuring of ecosystems via multiple ecological pathways

Removal of apex predators can drive ecological regime shifts owing to compensatory positive and negative population level responses by organisms at lower trophic levels. Despite evidence that apex predators can influence ecosystems though multiple ecological pathways, most studies investigating apex predators’ effects on ecosystems have considered just one pathway in isolation. Here, we provide evidence that lethal control of an apex predator, the dingo Canis dingo, drives shifts in the structure of Australia's tropical‐savannah ecosystems. We compared mammal assemblages and understorey structure at seven paired‐sites. Each site comprised an area where people poisoned dingoes and an area without dingo control. The effects of dingo control on mammals scaled with body size. Where dingoes were poisoned, we found greater activity of herbivorous macropods and feral cats, a mesopredator, but sparser understorey vegetation and lower abundances of native rodents. Our study suggests that ecological cascades arising from apex predators’ suppressive effects on herbivores and mesopredators occur simultaneously. Concordant effects of dingo removal across tropical‐savannah, forest and desert biomes suggest that dingoes once exerted ubiquitous top–down effects across Australia and provides support for calls that top–down forcing should be considered a fundamental process governing ecosystem structure.     

Lethal control of an apex predator has unintended cascading effects on forest mammal assemblages

Disruption to species-interaction networks caused by irruptions of herbivores and mesopredators following extirpation of apex predators is a global driver of ecosystem reorganization and biodiversity loss. Most studies of apex predators'' ecological roles focus on effects arising from their interactions with herbivores or mesopredators in isolation, but rarely consider how the effects of herbivores and mesopredators interact. Here, we provide evidence that multiple cascade pathways induced by lethal control of an apex predator, the dingo, drive unintended shifts in forest ecosystem structure. We compared mammal assemblages and understorey structure at seven sites in southern Australia. Each site comprised an area where dingoes were poisoned and an area without control. The effects of dingo control on mammals scaled with body size. Activity of herbivorous macropods, arboreal mammals and a mesopredator, the red fox, were greater, but understorey vegetation sparser and abundances of small mammals lower, where dingoes were controlled. Structural equation modelling suggested that both predation by foxes and depletion of understorey vegetation by macropods were related to small mammal decline at poisoned sites. Our study suggests that apex predators’ suppressive effects on herbivores and mesopredators occur simultaneously and should be considered in tandem in order to appreciate the extent of apex predators’ indirect effects.     

Are dingoes a trophic regulator in arid Australia? A comparison of mammal communities on either side of the dingo fence

The direct and indirect interactions that large mammalian carnivores have with other species can have far‐reaching effects on ecosystems. In recent years there has been growing interest in the role that Australia's largest terrestrial predator, the dingo, may have in structuring ecosystems. In this study we investigate the effect of dingo exclusion on mammal communities, by comparing mammal assemblages where dingoes were present and absent. The study was replicated at three locations spanning 300 km in the Strzelecki Desert. We hypothesized that larger species of mammal subject to direct interactions with dingoes should increase in abundance in the absence of dingoes while smaller species subject to predation by mesopredators should decrease in abundance because of increased mesopredator impact. There were stark differences in mammal assemblages on either side of the dingo fence and the effect of dingoes appeared to scale with body size. Kangaroos and red foxes were more abundant in the absence of dingoes while Rabbits and the Dusky Hopping‐mouse Notomys fuscus were less abundant where dingoes were absent, suggesting that they may benefit from lower red fox numbers in the presence of dingoes. Feral cats and dunnarts (Sminthopsis spp.) did not respond to dingo exclusion. Our study provides evidence that dingoes do structure mammal communities in arid Australia; however, dingo exclusion is also associated with a suite of land use factors, including sheep grazing and kangaroo harvesting that may also be expected to influence kangaroo and red fox populations. Maintaining or restoring populations of dingoes may be useful strategies to mitigate the impacts of mesopredators and overgrazing by herbivores.     

Resolving the value of the dingo in ecological restoration

There is global interest in restoring populations of apex predators, both to conserve them and to harness their ecological services. In Australia, reintroduction of dingoes (Canis dingo) has been proposed to help restore degraded rangelands. This proposal is based on theories and the results of studies suggesting that dingoes can suppress populations of prey (especially medium‐ and large‐sized herbivores) and invasive predators such as red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) and feral cats (Felis catus) that prey on threatened native species. However, the idea of dingo reintroduction has met opposition, especially from scientists who query the dingo's positive effects for some species or in some environments. Here, we ask ‘what is a feasible experimental design for assessing the role of dingoes in ecological restoration?’ We outline and propose a dingo reintroduction experiment—one that draws upon the existing dingo‐proof fence—and identify an area suitable for this (Sturt National Park, western New South Wales). Although challenging, this initiative would test whether dingoes can help restore Australia's rangeland biodiversity, and potentially provide proof‐of‐concept for apex predator reintroductions globally.     

Rarity of a top predator triggers continent-wide collapse of mammal prey: dingoes and marsupials in Australia

Top predators in terrestrial ecosystems may limit populations of smaller predators that could otherwise become over abundant and cause declines and extinctions of some prey. It is therefore possible that top predators indirectly protect many species of prey from excessive predation. This effect has been demonstrated in some small-scale studies, but it is not known how general or important it is in maintaining prey biodiversity. During the last 150 years, Australia has suffered the world's highest rate of mammal decline and extinction, and most evidence points to introduced mid-sized predators (the red fox and the feral cat) as the cause. Here, we test the idea that the decline of Australia's largest native predator, the dingo, played a role in these extinctions. Dingoes were persecuted from the beginning of European settlement in Australia and have been eliminated or made rare over large parts of the continent. We show a strong positive relationship between the survival of marsupials and the geographical overlap with high-density dingo populations. Our results suggest that the rarity of dingoes was a critical factor which allowed smaller predators to overwhelm marsupial prey, triggering extinction over much of the continent. This is evidence of a crucial role of top predators in maintaining prey biodiversity at large scales in terrestrial ecosystems and suggests that many remaining Australian mammals would benefit from the positive management of dingoes.     

Does a top-predator provide an endangered rodent with refuge from an invasive mesopredator?

In arid environments, ecological refuges are often conceptualised as places where animal species can persist through drought owing to the localised persistence of moisture and nutrients. The mesopredator release hypothesis (MRH) predicts that reduced abundance of top-order predators results in an increase in the abundance of smaller predators (mesopredators) and consequently has detrimental impacts on the prey of the smaller predators. Thus according to the MRH, the existence of larger predators may provide prey with refuge from predation. In this study, we investigated how the abundance of an endangered rodent Notomys fuscus is affected by Australia's largest predator, the dingo Canis lupus dingo , introduced mesopredators, introduced herbivores, kangaroos and rainfall. Our surveys showed that N. fuscus was more abundant where dingoes occurred. Generalised linear modelling showed that N. fuscus abundance was associated positively with dingo activity and long-term annual rainfall and negatively with red fox Vulpes vulpes activity. Our results were consistent with the hypothesis that areas with higher rainfall and dingoes provide N. fuscus with refuge from drought and predation by invasive red foxes, respectively. Top-order predators, such as dingoes, could have an important functional role in broad-scale biodiversity conservation programmes by reducing the impacts of mesopredators.     

Not all predators are equal: a continent‐scale analysis of the effects of predator control on Australian mammals

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Does a top predator suppress the abundance of an invasive mesopredator at a continental scale?

Aim We examined evidence for the mesopredator release hypothesis at a subcontinental scale by investigating the relationship between indices of abundance of the dingo Canis lupus dingo (top‐order predator) and the invasive red fox Vulpes vulpes (mesopredator) in three large regions across mainland Australia. The red fox is known to be one of the major threats to the persistence of small and medium‐sized native vertebrates across the continent. Location Australia. Methods Indices of abundance were calculated from three independently collected datasets derived from bounty returns and field surveys. Data were analysed using univariate parametric, semi‐parametric and nonparametric techniques. Results Predator abundance indices did not conform to a normal distribution and the relationships between dingo and fox abundance indices were not well described by linear functions. Semi‐parametric and nonparametric techniques revealed consistently negative associations between indices of dingo and fox abundance. Main conclusions The results provide evidence that mesopredator suppression by a top predator can be exerted at very large geographical scales and suggest that relationships between the abundances of top predators and mesopredators are not linear. Our results have broad implications for the management of canid predators. First, they suggest that dingoes function ecologically to reduce the activity or abundance of red foxes and thus are likely to dampen the predatory impacts of foxes. More generally, they provide support for the notion that the mesopredator‐suppressive effects of top predators could be incorporated into broad‐scale biodiversity conservation programmes in many parts of the world by actively maintaining populations of top predators or restoring them in areas where they are now rare. Determining the population densities at which the interactions of top predators become ecologically effective will be a critical goal for conservation managers who aim to maintain or restore ecosystems using the ecological interactions of top predators.     

Patterns in the abundance of kangaroo populations in arid Australia are consistent with the exploitation ecosystems hypothesis

The exploitation ecosystems hypothesis (EEH) makes predictions about trophic interactions along gradients of primary productivity. The EEH has been shown to apply to a wide range of terrestrial environments but its applicability to arid environments has received little attention. One reason for this is that arid environments may not satisfy the assumptions of the EEH because dearth of water may limit biological activity in both temporal and spatial contexts. The EEH predicts that herbivore biomass should increase linearly with primary productivity in the absence of predators; but when predators are present herbivore biomass will remain relatively constant due to top down regulation. We tested this prediction in an arid environment using rainfall as a proxy of primary productivity and an index of the abundance of the dominant herbivores (kangaroos Macropus spp.). We compared an index of kangaroo abundance at 18 areas situated along a gradient of mean annual rainfall in areas where a top predator (the dingo Canis lupus dingo) was rare and common. We also explored the relationship between the density of artificial water points (AWPs) and kangaroo abundance to investigate if the resource subsidy provided by AWPs allows kangaroos to persist in high numbers. Consistent with the EEH, kangaroo abundance showed a weak relationship with mean annual rainfall in the presence of dingoes but increased with increasing annual rainfall in the absence of dingoes. The density of AWPs was a poor predictor of kangaroo abundance. Our analysis of macro‐ecological patterns suggests that kangaroo populations are primarily top down regulated in the presence of dingoes, but are bottom up regulated in the absence of dingoes. Our findings provide evidence that top down regulation can prevail over bottom up regulation of herbivore populations in arid ecosystems and highlights the usefulness of the EEH as a predictor of macro‐ecological patterns of species abundance.     

Temporal and spatial trends in the abundances of an apex predator,introduced mesopredator and ground-nesting bird are consistent with the mesopredator release hypothesis

Apex predator extirpation has been identified as a key driver of biodiversity losses. The mesopredator release hypothesis (MRH) predicts that reduced abundance of apex predators results in an increase in the abundance and predatory impact of mesopredators. Here we test predictions made according to the MRH that an apex predator, the dingo (Canis dingo), benefits a small ground-nesting bird, the little button-quail (Turnix velox), by reducing the abundance of introduced mesopredators, the red fox (Vulpes vulpes) and feral cat (Felis catus). We also examined an alternative hypothesis that herbivore grazing negatively affects little button-quail abundance by reducing ground cover. To test our predictions we compared dingo, mesopredator, quail, herbivore and ground cover abundances and predator diets over a 25 month period and across a 10,000 km² region encompassing areas where dingoes were common and rare, pastoral properties, and conservation reserves. Little button-quails were primarily observed where dingoes were common and foxes rare. Cats were detected at low numbers throughout the sample area irrespective of the index abundance of little button-quails, dingoes or foxes. Birds occurred less frequently in dingo than fox or cat scats. Ground cover and herbivore grazing activity were poor correlates of little button-quail abundance. Our results are consistent with the hypothesis that apex predators’ mesopredator-suppressive effects translate to population-level benefits for a ground-nesting bird. Positive associations between the abundances of dingoes and small-prey species suggests that positive management of dingoes could be incorporated into broad-scale biodiversity conservation programs as a strategy to alleviate the predatory impacts of foxes.     

Conservation implications for dingoes from the maternal and paternal genome: Multiple populations,dog introgression,and demography

It is increasingly common for apex predators to face a multitude of complex conservation issues. In Australia, dingoes are the mainland apex predator and play an important role in ecological functioning. Currently, however, they are threatened by hybridization with modern domestic dogs in the wild. As a consequence, we explore how increasing our understanding of the evolutionary history of dingoes can inform management and conservation decisions. Previous research on whole mitochondrial genome and nuclear data from five geographical populations showed evidence of two distinct lineages of dingo. Here, we present data from a broader survey of dingoes around Australia using both mitochondrial and Y chromosome markers and investigate the timing of demographic expansions. Biogeographic data corroborate the presence of at least two geographically subdivided genetic populations, southeastern and northwestern. Demographic modeling suggests that dingoes have undergone population expansion in the last 5,000 years. It is not clear whether this stems from expansion into vacant niches after the extinction of thylacines on the mainland or indicates the arrival date of dingoes. Male dispersal is much more common than female, evidenced by more diffuse Y haplogroup distributions. There is also evidence of likely historical male biased introgression from domestic dogs into dingoes, predominately within southeastern Australia. These findings have critical practical implications for the management and conservation of dingoes in Australia; particularly a focus must be placed upon the threatened southeastern dingo population.     

Do dingoes suppress the activity of feral cats in northern Australia?

Large predators can have profound impacts on community composition. Not only do they directly affect prey abundance, they also indirectly affect prey abundance through their direct effects on smaller predators. In Australia, dingoes fill the role of a large predator and, in southern Australia, have clear impacts on introduced foxes. Their effect on introduced cats, however, is less clear. Here we present data from multiple sites across northern Australia (where foxes are absent), which reveal a negative correlation between cat and dingo activity. This relationship could arise because cats avoid areas where dingoes are active, or because cats are less abundant in areas with high dingo densities, or a combination of both. At a subset of our study sites, we experimentally reduced dingo (but not cat) abundance by poison baiting. This resulted in a 55% drop in dingo activity within 4 weeks of baiting, but without a compensatory increase in cat activity. This suggests the negative correlation between cat and dingo activity is not a simple consequence of cats reactively avoiding areas with higher dingo traffic, but rather, that there are fewer cats in areas where dingoes are more active. This study is a rare demonstration of the potential for dingoes to affect the behaviour and potentially the population size of feral cats, and therefore reduce the impact of feral cats on vulnerable native prey species.     

Short‐term response of threatened small macropods and their predators to prescribed burns in subtropical Australia

Fire is an important ecological process that shapes vegetation structure and habitat for faunal assemblages globally. Prescribed burns are increasingly being used in conservation and management to restore fire regimes in fire‐suppressed vegetation communities. Small threatened macropods require structurally complex habitat that allows them to evade detection by predators. Given that fire can alter vegetation structure, it can be viewed as a strong ecological force in shifting the dynamics between predator and prey species. Previous studies in temperate Australia have shown that prescribed burns in the presence of European Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes) and feral Cat (Felis catus) can have negative impacts on small macropods and medium‐sized mammals. Post‐fire response of threatened small macropods and their predators has not been experimentally examined in subtropical Australia despite this region providing refugia for the Long‐nosed Potoroo (Potorous tridactylus) and Red‐legged Pademelon (Thylogale stigmatica). We conducted a before‐after‐control‐impact fire experiment at two paired sites after low–moderate intensity burns typical of cool season prescribed burns. We used camera trapping to investigate changes in activity of threatened small macropods and their predators. We also recorded vegetation change. Despite large reductions in ground and shrub cover, activity of small macropods and the Dingo (Canis dingo) did not change in response to fires. Therefore, the threat of dingo predation appears to have remained unchanged following the fires. Although feral cats and foxes were present, they showed negligible activity across our sites. Our study suggests that small‐scale patchy ecological burns may not lead to increased predation of small macropods in our landscape. We attribute this to sufficient post‐fire refugia and very low densities of foxes.     

Changes in desert avifauna associated with the functional extinction of a terrestrial top predator

We investigated how long‐term suppression of populations of a top predator, the dingo Canis dingo, affected composition of sympatric avifauna in Australian deserts, by surveying bird assemblages across ~80 000 km² of arid dune‐fields on either side of the Dingo Barrier Fence (DBF; a 5614 km‐long fence separating ecosystems in which dingoes are abundant from ecosystems in which dingoes are functionally extinct). Using fourth‐corner modelling, incorporating species’ traits, we identified apparent declines of sedentary birds that nest in low vegetation and small birds that feed primarily on grass seed, and increases in scavenging birds associated with the functional extinction of dingoes. Occupancy differed between sites inside and outside the DBF in 13 bird species. We hypothesise that these differences in bird assemblages across the DBF result, in part, from increases in kangaroos Macropus spp. and red foxes Vulpes vulpes in arid landscapes where dingoes have been removed. Our study provides evidence that the functional extinction of a large terrestrial predator has had pervasive ecosystem effects, including shifts in composition of avian assemblages.     

More than Mere Numbers: The Impact of Lethal Control on the Social Stability of a Top-Order Predator

Population control of socially complex species may have profound ecological implications that remain largely invisible if only their abundance is considered. Here we discuss the effects of control on a socially complex top-order predator, the dingo (Canis lupus dingo). Since European occupation of Australia, dingoes have been controlled over much of the continent. Our aim was to investigate the effects of control on their abundance and social stability. We hypothesized that dingo abundance and social stability are not linearly related, and proposed a theoretical model in which dingo populations may fluctuate between three main states: (A) below carrying capacity and socially fractured, (B) above carrying capacity and socially fractured, or (C) at carrying capacity and socially stable. We predicted that lethal control would drive dingoes into the unstable states A or B, and that relaxation of control would allow recovery towards C. We tested our predictions by surveying relative abundance (track density) and indicators of social stability (scent-marking and howling) at seven sites in the arid zone subject to differing degrees of control. We also monitored changes in dingo abundance and social stability following relaxation and intensification of control. Sites where dingoes had been controlled within the previous two years were characterized by low scent-marking activity, but abundance was similar at sites with and without control. Signs of social stability steadily increased the longer an area was allowed to recover from control, but change in abundance did not follow a consistent path. Comparison of abundance and stability among all sites and years demonstrated that control severely fractures social groups, but that the effect of control on abundance was neither consistent nor predictable. Management decisions involving large social predators must therefore consider social stability to ensure their conservation and ecological functioning.     

Prey use by dingoes in a contested landscape: Ecosystem service provider or biodiversity threat?

In Australia, dingoes (Canis lupus dingo) have been implicated in the decline and extinction of a number of vertebrate species. The lowland Wet Tropics of Queensland, Australia is a biologically rich area with many species of rainforest‐restricted vertebrates that could be threatened by dingoes; however, the ecological impacts of dingoes in this region are poorly understood. We determined the potential threat posed by dingoes to native vertebrates in the lowland Wet Tropics using dingo scat/stomach content and stable isotope analyses of hair from dingoes and potential prey species. Common mammals dominated dingo diets. We found no evidence of predation on threatened taxa or rainforest specialists within our study areas. The most significant prey species were northern brown bandicoots (Isoodon macrourus), canefield rats (Rattus sordidus), and agile wallabies (Macropus agilis). All are common species associated with relatively open grass/woodland habitats. Stable isotope analysis suggested that prey species sourced their nutrients primarily from open habitats and that prey choice, as identified by scat/stomach analysis alone, was a poor indicator of primary foraging habitats. In general, we find that prey use by dingoes in the lowland Wet Tropics does not pose a major threat to native and/or threatened fauna, including rainforest specialists. In fact, our results suggest that dingo predation on “pest” species may represent an important ecological service that outweighs potential biodiversity threats. A more targeted approach to managing wild canids is needed if the ecosystem services they provide in these contested landscapes are to be maintained, while simultaneously avoiding negative conservation or economic impacts.     

Exploitation ecosystems and trophic cascades in non‐equilibrium systems: pasture – red kangaroo – dingo interactions in arid Australia

The exploitation ecosystems hypothesis (EEH) proposes that 1) plant biomass reflects the primary productivity of an ecosystem modified by the regulating effect of herbivory, and 2) herbivore abundance reflects the productivity of plants modified by the regulating effect of predation. Primary productivity thus determines the number of trophic levels in an ecosystem and the extent to which bottom–up and top–down regulation influence the biomass ratios of adjacent and non‐adjacent trophic levels (i.e. trophic cascading). We constructed an interactive model of plant (pasture), herbivore (red kangaroo Macropus rufus) and predator (dingo Canis lupus dingo), a system in which trophic cascades have been suggested to occur, and used it to test the effects of increasing stochastic variation in primary productivity and dingo culling on predictions of the EEH. The model contained four feedback loops: the predator–herbivore and herbivore–plant feedback loops, and the predator and plant density‐dependent feedback loops. The equilibrium conditions along the primary productivity gradient reproduced the three zones of trophic dynamics predicted by the EEH, plus an additional zone at productivities above which the maximum density of a predator is achieved due to social regulation: that zone is characterized by increasing herbivore density and decreasing plant biomass. Culling dingoes produced trophic cascades that were strongly attenuated at primary productivities below which the maximum density of dingoes was attained. Results were robust to uncertainty in kangaroo off‐take by dingoes and to the efficacy of dingo culling, but prey switching by dingoes from red kangaroos to reptiles would weaken trophic cascades. We conclude that social regulation of carnivores has important implications for expression of the EEH and trophic cascades, and that attenuation of trophic cascades increases with increasing stochasticity in primary productivity. Our model also provides a framework for understanding the conditions in which dingo‐mediated trophic cascades might be expected to occur, and generates testable predictions about the effects of higher dingo densities (e.g. by stopping culling or reintroduction to former range) on kangaroo and pasture dynamics.     

Do wild dogs exclude foxes? Evidence for competition from dietary and spatial overlaps

Abstract The management of wild canids (wild dogs/dingoes and foxes) presents a conservation dilemma for land managers across Australia. These canids are predators of wildlife and domestic stock but dingoes are considered native and anecdotal reports suggest that they may suppress foxes such that dingo/dog conservation may have a net benefit to wildlife. This study examines dietary and spatial interactions between wild dogs and foxes in the Greater Blue Mountains region of NSW to address the possibility of suppression through competitive exclusion by dogs on foxes. Predator diets were compared using faecal analysis as well as an analysis of 19 dietary studies from similar forest habitats in eastern Australia. Spatial relationships were examined using data from an extensive canid control programme. Diets of wild dogs and foxes showed a high degree of overlap in species taken, indicating potential for competition. But there was also evidence of resource partitioning with the size and arboreality of mammalian prey differing between the two predators. Wild dogs and foxes responded to different landscape‐scale variation in the physical environment, but there was no clear evidence of large‐scale differences in their distribution. At the fine scale there was a negative association between these predators that indicated possible temporal avoidance or localized habitat shifts. Therefore, there is evidence for dietary competition and fine‐scale exclusion, but no support for landscape‐scale exclusion of foxes by wild dogs in the Blue Mountains.