Leopard food habits in the Lopé National Park, Gabon, Central Africa

To determine leopard Panthera pardus (Linnaeus) food habits in the Lopé National Park in Gabon, Central Africa, 196 leopard scats were collected and analysed. Prey items were determined using undigested matter isolated from the scats, and a reference collection of hairs and bones from potential prey species. A minimum of 30 different prey species were identified, 27 of which were mammalian. Leopards preyed mainly on ungulates, which made up 59% of the biomass consumed. Diurnal primates (18%) and large rodents (17%) were also heavily preyed upon. The mean prey weight estimated from scats was 29.2 kg. The most important single prey species was found to be red river hog Potamochoerus porcus (Linnaeus), making up 20% of the biomass consumed, followed by forest buffalo Syncerus caffer nanus (Boddaert) and cane rat Thryonomys swinderianus (Temminck), each comprising 13% of biomass consumed.     

Leopard abundance,distribution and food habits in the Mt. Rungwe–Kitulo landscape,Southern Tanzania

Between 2003 and 2010, 2178.5 km of transect was walked and 76 leopard scats counted in the Mt. Rungwe–Kitulo landscape. The number of scats per 10 km ranged between 0 and 0.83 in Mt Rungwe and between 0 and 1.41 in Kitulo. Leopards chiefly selected bamboo forest between 2500 and 2950 m asl. Some 126 interviews revealed that leopards were encountered more in the 1980s than latterly. Leopards used to attack livestock, but in the 1960s and 1970s, were heavily poisoned. We analysed 59 scats for undigested materials and compared them to a hair reference atlas. Some 135 different prey items were found, with an average of 2.3 items per scat. Some 14 samples were identified to species level and four to genus level. The average prey body weight was 5.9 kg. The diet was dominated by small mammals and rodent species up to 5.0 kg (59.57%) of biomass, followed by carnivores (29.14%), primate species (8.91%) and small rodents <1 kg (2.24%). The highest relative biomass consumed was prey classes of 1.1–5.0 kg (61.06%), followed by prey 5.1–50 kg (35.22%) and small rodents <1 kg (2.24%). The total absence of ungulate prey and conservation implications are discussed.     

Black-backed jackal diet at Mokolodi Nature Reserve, Botswana

We examined the feeding habits of black‐backed jackals at Mokolodi Nature Reserve, Botswana, by analysing 237 scats collected between November 1995 and February 1997. Jackal dietary habits reflected the availability of a wide variety of food items and the differential vulnerability of prey. Potential animal and plant food available to jackals varies throughout the year because of its seasonal character. Seasonality of prey occurrence in scats was pronounced for small mammals, miscellaneous fruits and invertebrates. Across all seasons, mammals were the most common food resource (32.4%, n = 168), followed by anthropogenic items (14.8%), fruits (12.9%), invertebrates (10.8%), birds (8.5%), unidentified items (3.5%) and reptiles (1.4%). The presence of domestic mammals and poultry remains in scats reveals their importance in the diet of jackals and the tendency of jackals to frequent human settlements in search of food. Some ecological implications of jackal dietary habits are also explored.     

Diet of stoats (Mustela erminea) in an Alpine habitat:The importance of fruit consumption in summer

The diet of stoat, Mustela erminea, in the Italian Alps was studied from May to October 1996 and 1997 through faecal analysis. Scats were collected along twenty transects and near dens within a 10-km² study area. In the same area, seasonal variation in the available biomass of different prey types was estimated using capture-mark-recapture (small rodents), pitfall trap grids (insects), and fruit counts. About 60 % of scats (n = 734) contained small rodents, indicating that they were the main prey for stoat. However, the frequency of occurrence of fruits in the diet increased significantly in August, after rodent biomass had dropped by more than 50 % in July, but increased again to previous August levels. Fruit consumption decreased in September and October, although available biomass of fruits remained constant. Thus stoat included a large amount of alternative food in their diet when fruits were mature and their availability, and probably their profitability, increased. We were, however, unable to measure absolute consumption of prey. We conclude that primary prey, rodents, is always harvested, suggesting that the costs of harvesting rodents, abundant throughout spring–autumn, are never high. The consumption of alternative prey is independent of its availability, and increases only when relative benefits of harvesting alternative prey (fruits) increases, which is consistent with optimal foraging theory.     

Diets of Ocelots (Leopardus pardalis), Margays (L. wiedii), and Oncillas (L. tigrinus) in the Atlantic Rainforest in Southeast Brazil

Felids play an important role in structuring the prey community, and thus in the dynamics of the plant community in tropical forests. The diets of three species of small cats, Leopardus pardalis (ocelot), L. wiedii (margay), and L. tigrinus (oncilla) were investigated by analysis of scats and regurgitations during a one-year study at Parque Estadual Serra do Mar, Núcleo Santa Virgínia, southeastern Brazil. Small non-volant mammals were the most frequent prey in all the diets. The diets of the three cats were similar but although they consumed the same prey items, they showed differential use of them. Ocelots consumed more reptiles than the other species, oncillas preyed on birds and arboreal marsupials, whereas margays were generalists.     

Feeding habits of Geoffroy's cat (Leopardus geoffroyi) in southern Brazil

The present study was carried out from 2001 to 2005, with the objective of analyzing the diet of Leopardus geoffroyi in extreme southern Brazil, through analyses of stomach contents and scats. The importance of each prey type found in the scats (n=66) was determined from the frequency of occurrence and percentage of occurrence. In the stomachs (n=9), the importance of each prey was determined using Pianka's index of relative importance (IRI). The food spectrum of L. geoffroyi included mammals, birds, serpents, amphibians and insects. Mammals were the most abundant items, present in 95.5% of the scats and representing 74.4% of the total prey, reaching an IRI of 13296.3 in the stomachs. The principal prey types found in the stomachs and scats were small rodents (Cavia spp., Oligoryzomys spp., Necromys spp. and Holochilus brasiliensis) and large-sized rodents (Myocastor coypus), of terrestrial, arboreal or semi-aquatic habit. Probably, the high percentage of these prey items in the diet is related to their availability and abundance. The index of niche breadth was low in both the stomach and scat analyses (respectively, B_sta=0.18 and 0.17), demonstrating the high degree of specialization of these cats.     

Food habits of the Indian fox (Vulpes bengalensis) in Kutch, Gujarat, India

We characterized the diet of the Indian fox (Vulpes bengalensis) during the breeding season in a semi-desert region of Western India. Diet was estimated using scat analysis. We used Index of Relative Importance (IRI) to determine the contribution of prey items in the diet of the Indian fox.Indian foxes were observed to feed on a wide variety of prey items. Arthropods were the most frequently occurring prey in their diet. IRI scores were highest for the group Coleoptera and Orthoptera followed by rodents, termites, Ziziphus fruits and spiny tailed lizards (Uromastyx hardwickii). IRI scores for rodents were higher for pups, differing significantly from proportions present in adult diet, thus indicating that they are crucial food items for the young ones. Prey proportions in the fox diet differed between the two habitats in the study area (grassland and scrubland).Our data suggest that the Indian fox is essentially an omnivore showing similar diet (in terms of high incidence of arthropods) to foxes inhabiting arid and semi-arid regions. The opportunistic and generalist strategy has probably helped the species to survive in varied habitats across the Indian subcontinent.     

内蒙古达赉湖自然保护区狼食性的季节性变化

2004年7月到2005年6月在达赉湖自然保护区收集狼(Canis lupus)的粪便,采用粪便分析法研究食性的季节性变化。由于野生有蹄类动物严重匮乏,家畜已成为该地区狼的主要食物:草青期的频率为74.7%,相对生物量达到94.4%;草枯期的频率为67.6%,相对生物量达到91.8%。该地区的家畜主要有绵羊、山羊、牛和马,狼食性的季节性变化主要与家畜的放牧方式有关。兔类和小型啮齿类动物是狼次要选择的食物。该地区鸟类资源丰富,是狼较稳定的食物(草青期6.2%,草枯期7.8%)。为降低该地区狼对家畜的捕食,建议管理部门合理控制狼的数量,引入牧羊犬及加强对牛、马的管理。     

Evidence for prey selection by spotted hyaena in the Eastern Cape,South Africa

We tested the widely accepted hypothesis that spotted hyaenas (Crocuta crocuta) are non-selective in their diet. The prey preference of spotted hyaena was studied in the Addo Elephant National Park (AENP), South Africa. Diet (frequency of occurrence of prey items in the diet) was quantified through the analysis of 55 scats, and compared with available prey. A combination of large- and medium-sized mammals (buffalo (Syncerus caffer), red hartebeest (Alcelaphus buselaphus) and common duiker (Sylvicapra grimmia) were the most preferred prey items. The most abundant species, warthog (Phacochoerus africanus) and kudu (Tragelaphus strepsiceros), were ignored and avoided, respectively. These results show that the assumption that hyaena prey on the most abundant available prey species may be overly simplistic. Predation patterns, such as the ones observed in AENP, may have important ramifications for less common species that are selected by hyaena in small enclosed reserves.     

Food habits of the pale fox (Vulpes pallida) in Niger

The pale fox (Vulpes pallida) is a small, little known African carnivore that is patchily distributed throughout the Sahel. We studied the food habits of pale foxes in the Termit and Tin Toumma National Nature Reserve in south‐eastern Niger by examining the frequency of occurrence and proportions of prey remains in scats (n = 398). Arthropods, primarily Coleoptera, Orthoptera and Scorpiones, were present in 91.8% of scats. Mammalian remains, primarily Gerbillus spp., were found in 5.6% of scats. Avian, squamate and plant material were rarely present. There was little evidence of seasonal variation in the frequency of occurrence or proportions of prey in the diet, confirming that pale foxes are primarily insectivorous.     

The bat-eared fox: A dietary specialist?

We studied the degree of dietary specialisation of bat-eared foxes (Otocyon megalotis) by analysing 177 scats collected on a game ranch in central South Africa. Bat-eared foxes generally are considered to be insectivorous with a distinct specialisation on termites, however, our results indicated a much broader and opportunistic diet. Termites were detected in more than 90% of the scats throughout the year, but they only contributed 12–40% to the ingested biomass across seasons. Instead, fruits, primarily bluebush (Diospyros lycioides), were the most important food category in summer (63% biomass) as well as in autumn (74% biomass). Also, high niche breadth values (B = 5.7–6.9 for frequency of occurrence, B = 1.8–4.1 for biomass data) indicated a rather generalistic feeding behaviour. We also documented numerous cases of opportunistic scavenging on carcasses by bat-eared foxes. The difference with earlier dietary studies of bat-eared foxes might be attributable to geographical and ecological variations among sites and also partly to methodological differences. Concerning the latter, no previous studies considered biomass calculations but instead most assessed the frequency of occurrence of prey items, which likely overestimated the importance of small prey such as termites.     

Food habits of wolvesCanis lupus in Latvia

Diet of wolvesCanis lupus Linnaeus, 1758 in Latvia was studied from 1997 to 2001 based on 302 scats and 107 stomachs. Wild ungulates (cervids and wild boarSus scrofa) and beaverCastor fiber were the dominant prey. Cervids were found in 50% of samples (62% biomass), wild boar in 25% (21% biomass), beavers in 14% (12% biomass). Wolves selected for wild boar, especially in winter when its ratio in the diet increased to 34% from 20% in summer. It was a more common prey species in the east of the country. The ratio of beavers, small rodents and plant food was higher in summer, which resulted in a broader food niche in summer than in winter (B = 2.53 versus 1.81, respectively). The role of domestic animals in the wolf diet was minimal except for winter when they were consumed as carrion (13%). More than 1/3of all stomachs investigated were empty. The average weight of stomach contents was 972.8 g. The importance of the beaver as an alternative prey is discussed. We conclude that wolves in Latvia prey mainly on wild animals and conflicts with livestock owners are only occasional and/or local.     

Seasonal diet and prey selection of black‐backed jackals on a small‐livestock farm in South Africa

The extent to which black‐backed jackals (Canis mesomelas) selectively consume domestic sheep (Ovis aries) compared to wild prey is unknown. Using faecal analysis and prey surveys, we determined the seasonal diet and prey selection of jackals on a small‐livestock farm in South Africa. Sheep comprised 25–48% of the biomass consumed by jackals across seasons, and consumption peaked during the lambing seasons, indicating sheep often were the main food resource for jackals. Another main food resource was wild ungulates <50 kg, primarily springbok (Antidorcas marsupialis) and steenbok (Raphicerus campestris), which comprised 8–47% of the biomass consumed. Other important food items were mammals 1–3 kg (4–16%), which included hares (Lepus spp.) and springhares (Pedetes capensis), and small rodents (10–14%). Compared to the biomass available, jackals selectively consumed mammals 1–3 kg over sheep across all seasons, whereas wild ungulates <50 kg were selectively consumed over sheep in most seasons. Our results showed that jackals selectively consumed different food items throughout the year and that wild prey were consistently selected over sheep.     

Predation of insects by feral cats (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Felis silvestris catus</Emphasis> L., 1758) on an oceanic island (La Palma,Canary Island)

Predation of insects by feral cats (Felis silvestris catus) on a heterogeneous oceanic island (La Palma, Canary Islands) was studied. A total of 127 invertebrates were identified in the analysis of 500 scats (100 from each habitat of the Island). Invertebrates appear in 18.00% of the scats, representing an insignificant percentage of the total consumed biomass by feral cats on La Palma Island (0.05%). Insects were the most common invertebrate prey both in percentage of occurrence (90.6%) and invertebrate biomass (93.53%), with a total of 115 prey items. Orthoptera, Lepidoptera and Coleoptera were the main prey groups. Among the five main habitats present in La Palma Island, the temperate forest shows the lowest consumption of invertebrates, although insect consumption did not show statistical differences. However Orthoptera and Lepidoptera were more frequently preyed on in the pine forest and in the xerophytic shrub, respectively. Moreover, applying the Simplified Morisita index, a different insect composition of the diet was observed among habitats. Although, none of insects predated by feral cats are threatened, the identification of invertebrate component of the feral cats’ diet is an important tool for the correct understanding of predation significance and to prevent damage to endangered insect species.     

The diet of the striped hyena in Nepal's lowland regions

Striped hyenas (Hyaena hyaena) are extremely rare in Nepal, and only a few people have studied them in their natural forest and grassland habitat. Their rarity is due to anthropogenic pressures such as hunting, habitat modification, being killed on roads, and depletion of their natural prey. Here, we studied the feeding ecology of hyenas in lowland, Nepal. We employed an opportunistic sampling to collect hyena scats in a range of habitats and the line transect sampling to identify the prey of the hyena in the study site. We collected 68 hyena scats between 2015 and 2018. Most of the hyena scat (39.7%) was found in the Churia Hill forest followed by riverbed (26.4%), mixed forest (14.7%), Sal (Shorea robusta)‐dominated forest (11.7%), and grassland area (7.3%). We found eleven mammalian prey species, plants, and some unidentified items in the hyena scats. The frequency of occurrence and relative biomass of the medium‐sized wild boar (Sus scrofa) were higher than other smaller prey species such as hare (Lepus nigricollis) and rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta). Similarly, the proportion of large prey species such as nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus) in the hyena diet was lower compared with wild boar, hares, and rhesus macaques indicating medium‐sized wild boar is the most preferred prey species. Livestock contributed 17.3% of the total dietary biomass. Domesticated species such as goats, sheep, cows, and even dogs were found in the diet of hyenas. Predation of livestock by hyenas could cause conflict, especially if this ongoing issue continues in the future. Rather, more conservation effort is required in lowland areas of Nepal to protect the hyenas' natural prey species, particularly in wildlife habitats to reduce the lure of taking domestic livestock. Similarly, conservation education at the local level and active involvement of government authorities in the conservation of this species might be helpful to mitigate human–hyena conflict in the human‐dominated landscape.     

Diet of Eurasian lynx <Emphasis Type="Italic">Lynx lynx</Emphasis> in the northern Dinaric Mountains (Slovenia and Croatia)

The Eurasian lynx Lynx lynx (Linnaeus 1758) is an opportunistic predator that usually selects the smallest ungulate available. Its diet varies considerably among different regions; therefore it is important to study lynx diet in different parts of the species’ range. We studied the diet of lynx from the endangered Dinaric population in Slovenia and Croatia by analyzing lynx scats, prey remains, and stomach contents. Dinaric lynx mainly killed European roe deer Capreolus capreolus (0.64 frequency of occurrence, 79% of all consumed biomass), which were used more frequently during winter and spring. Ungulates were killed more often by adult males than by lynx of other age and sex groups. In contrast to studies from other regions, lynx in the northern Dinaric Mountains also frequently fed on the edible dormice Glis glis (0.18 frequency of occurrence, 7% of all consumed biomass). This large rodent appears to be an important alternative prey, especially for females and young lynx, and was the reason for the highest use of rodents reported so far for the Eurasian lynx. Edible dormice in Dinaric forests have highly variable numbers of active animals. Seasonal and possibly annual variation in dormouse availability obviously affects lynx diet. This is a rare example where variability in the availability of the alternative prey and not the preferred prey leads to the dietary shift. This study confirms the opportunistic nature of Eurasian lynx and the regional variability of its diet.     

Diet composition and biomass consumption of harbour seals in Telemark and Aust-Agder,Norwegian Skagerrak

ABSTRACT

To explore ecosystem dynamics and functions it is vital to obtain knowledge on predator–prey relations. Harbour seals are piscivorous predators that can come into conflict with fisheries. Recently, as the Skagerrak and Kattegat population of harbour seals has increased, claims have emerged that seals are depleting coastal cod populations. The diet of harbour seals in Norwegian Skagerrak was investigated based on otolith identification from scats. The overall seal diet included 20 different fish species/groups. The most important prey (combined index Q _i ) were haddock/pollack/saithe (32.7%), genus Trisopterus (Norway pout/poor cod/bib, 12.5%), plaice (12.4%) and herring (10.0%). Plaice also had the largest biomass (24.1%). Gadoids and pleuronectids comprised 88.6% of the diet (combined index Q _i ) and 87.1% in terms of biomass. Cod constituted 0.7% (combined index Q _i ) of the overall diet and 2.3% in terms of biomass. Fish length estimates showed that seals generally prefer small fish below minimum allowed landing size. Estimated total amount of fish consumed was 315 tons per year and was dominated by non-commercial species. Annual cod consumption was an estimated 7.1 tons, representing 5% of annual cod landings, suggesting that competition between local fisheries and harbour seals is limited.     

Prey of the Antarctic fur seal <Emphasis Type="Italic">Arctocephalus gazella</Emphasis> at Marion Island

The prey of Antarctic fur seals, Arctocephalus gazella, was investigated through scat analysis at Marion Island from 1996 until 2000. A total of 25 different prey species were identified from scats, of which 21 were fish, 1 crustacean and 3 cephalopods. Fish were by far the main prey item, occurring in 96.1% of samples, followed by crustaceans (2.7%) and cephalopods (1.2%). Fishes from the family Myctophidae (Gymnoscopelus piabilis, Electrona carlsbergi, G. fraseri and E. subaspera) were the most abundant prey (97.2%) every year, while those from the families Notothenididae, Paralepididae, Notosudidae, Microstomatidae and Gempylidae were present in small numbers. G. piabilis, E. carlsbergi, E. subaspera and G. nicholsi contributed the most in terms of biomass to the diet. Significant seasonal differences existed in the diet when comparing summer and winter. G. piabilis, K. anderssoni, P. bolini and P. choriodon dominated in summer as opposed to E. carlsbergi, E. subaspera, G. fraseri and G. nicholsi that dominated in winter. The fish varied in size and mass, from the small K. anderssoni to the large Paranotothenia magellanica. Cephalopods and the crustacean Nauticaris marionis, in very low numbers and in winter, appeared in the scats, but not in all years of study. Unidentified penguin remains rarely turned up in scats.     

Apex predators and the facilitation of resource partitioning among mesopredators

Apex predators may influence carnivore communities through the suppression of competitively dominant mesopredators, however they also provide carrion subsidies that could influence foraging and competition among sympatric mesopredators when small prey is scarce. We assessed coyote Canis latrans and red fox Vulpes vulpes winter diet overlap and composition from scats collected in two study areas with 3‐fold difference in grey wolf Canis lupus density due to a wolf control program. We hypothesized that differences in diet composition would be driven by the use of carrion, and tested whether 1) apex predators facilitate resource overlap, or 2) apex predators facilitate resource partitioning. We estimated the available biomass of snowshoe hares and voles based on pellet density and vole capture rates in each study area. We used molecular analysis to confirm species identification of predator scats, and used microscopic evaluation of prey remains to analyze diet composition of 471 coyote and fox scats. Ungulate carrion, voles and snowshoe hares comprised 73% of coyote and fox diet, and differences in use of carrion and microtines accounted for nearly 60% of the dissimilarity in diet among these canids. Carrion was the top‐ranked item in the coyote diet in both study areas, whereas carrion use by red foxes declined 3‐fold in the study area with higher wolf and small prey abundance. Diet overlap tended to be lower and diet diversity tended to be higher where wolves were more abundant, though these trends were not statistically significant. Taken together, our findings indicate that carrion provisions could facilitate resource partitioning in mesocarnivore communities by alleviating exploitation competition for small mammals.