Revision of the genus <Emphasis Type="Italic">Melamphaes</Emphasis> (Melamphaidae): Part 3. Multirakered species: <Emphasis Type="Italic">M. suborbitalis,M. parini</Emphasis>, and <Emphasis Type="Italic">M. acanthomus</Emphasis>

In the third part of the revision of the genus Melamphaes Melamphaidae (Melamphaidae), we examine multirakered species (20 and more rakers at the first gill arch) with seven soft rays in the ventral fin that have a posttemporal (temporal) spine directed anteriorly-upwards, with 14–15 rays in the pectoral fin, and 11 (rarely 12) trunk vertebrae. M. suborbitalis inhabits the Atlantic Ocean (in the north up to 57°N, in the south, up to 40°S), the Indian Ocean (is known in its southwestern part), and the western part of the Pacific Ocean. There is no significant evidence on catches of this species in the eastern part of the Pacific Ocean. Apparently, M. suborbitalis is absent in the tropical waters of the oceans. Until recently, M. parini was known from the holotype caught in the Sea of Okhotsk. Two specimens of this rare species: from the central (the area of the Hawaiian Islands) and the northeastern part of the Pacific Ocean are reported. M. acanthomus is an endemic of the eastern part of the Pacific Ocean where it is known along the coasts of America from California to the northern coast of Chile (approximately between 33°N and 21°S).     

New Host and Locality Records for the Ixodes Auritulus (Acari: Ixodidae) Species Group, with a Review of Host Relationships and Distribution in the Neotropical Zoogeographic Region

New Neotropical records are presented for ticks belonging to the Ixodes auritulus Neumann, 1904, species group, together with a review of hosts and localities from which members of this complex have previously been collected. The range of the I. auritulus species group is now understood to include Colombia, and 15 bird species are listed as new hosts. From Guatemala to southern Argentina and Chile, specimens of the I. auritulus group have been found on birds belonging to the orders Ciconiiformes, Columbiformes, Falconiformes, Galliformes, Passeriformes, Piciformes, Procellariiformes and Tinamiformes. Passeriform birds are probably the principal hosts, sustaining tick populations throughout the Neotropics. Collection data have yielded four areas – southern South America (from 56° S to 51° S), southern Brazil (25° S–22° S), south-central Peru (14° S–10° S) and Central America (10° N–15° N) – where the I. auritulus group appears to commonly parasitize birds, but additional collections may show that the range of this complex is less discontinuous than currently perceived. Several morphological differences are described for ticks within and among these areas, but it is still unclear whether the I. auritulus group comprises more than one species.     

Presencia de Sphyrna lewini (Griffith & Smith, 1834) en el Uruguay (Chondrichthyes,Sphyrnidae)

Presence of Sphyrna lewini (Griffith & Smith, 1834) in Uruguay (Chondrichthyes, Sphyrnidae)

Sphyrna lewini (Griffith it Smith, 1834) is reported from La Paloma, Uruguay (34° 39'S, 54° 09'W) being the southern record of the species. First morphometrical data about argentine's specimens of S. zygaena (Linné, 1758) are added.     

Diet of the Chilean sandperch, Pinguipes chilensis (Perciformes, Pinguipedidae) in southern Chile

A study of the Pinguipes chilensis Valenciennes 1833 diet was carried out on 414 specimens captured on the Talcahuano, Chile coastline (36°41′S; 73°06′E) between October 1998 and March 2000. P. chilensis, endemic to the southeast Pacific (from Tumbes, Peru to Magallanes, Chile), is confirmed as a general predator over a wide trophic spectrum including 61 taxa. Crustaceans (mostly mysids, but also a wide variety of decapods) made up the principal dietary component, followed by fish and annelids. Prey belonging to Mollusca, Ophiuroidea, Echinoidea, Rhynchocoela, Sipunculida, Echiura and Urochordata were also present. There were no significant differences between male and female diets, although they shared only 32 prey. A significant dietary difference was found, however, between analysed size groups: specimens under 30 cm total length (TL) preyed mainly on the amphipod, Ampelisca araucana; those over 30 cm TL preyed on the mysid, Neomysis sp.; and those over 40 cm TL on fish, annelids, molluscs and echinoderms. Seasonal differences, due in large part to the dynamics of the prey species, were also found to be significant. Crustaceans were the predominant prey throughout the study with the exception of autumn, when fish were the most common prey.     

Global sampling reveals low genetic diversity within Compsopogon (Compsopogonales,Rhodophyta)

Twenty-five specimens of the freshwater red alga Compsopogon were collected from locations in North America, South America, Europe, Asia, Australasia and Oceania, and from an aquarium, with the goal of determining genetic diversity among specimens and ascertaining the number of phylogenetic species. Specimens were morphologically identified as having either the ‘caeruleus’ morphology, with regular polyhedral cortical cells, or the ‘leptoclados’ morphology, with irregular cortical cells with rhizoidal outgrowths. The ‘leptoclados’ morphology has been used by some researchers to distinguish the genus Compsopogonopsis from Compsopogon, or at least to distinguish C. leptoclados from other Compsopogon species. Sequence data for the rbcL gene and cox1 barcoding region were obtained for most specimens. In addition, SSU and partial LSU (barcode) rDNA were explored for a few specimens, but all sequences were identical. For the 25 newly generated and eight previously published rbcL gene data, there were seven unique haplotypes, but the sequence divergence was very low (≤7 bp, ≤ 0.7%). One haplotype was widespread, represented by 21 specimens from diverse locations in all regions sampled. Likewise, the 22 new and one previously published cox1 barcode region sequences yielded seven unique haplotypes with little sequence divergence (≤13 bp, ≤ 2.0%). One haplotype was widespread, being shared among 16 specimens from all regions. The combined molecular and morphological data showed no genetic differentiation between the ‘caeruleus’ and ‘leptoclados’ morphologies. The ubiquitous distribution of Compsopogon in tropical/subtropical regions and its low genetic variation are probably facilitated by the alga's ability to tolerate a wide range of stream conditions and its propagation via asexual spores. Given the findings of previous culture-based studies, morphometric research and field observations, coupled with the results of our study, we conclude there is only a single monospecific genus worldwide and that the species is correctly called C. caeruleus, since this is the oldest validly published name; all other previously described species of Compsopogon and Compsopogonopsis are synonyms.     

IDENTIFICATION OF CRYPTIC SPECIES IN THE LESSONIA NIGRESCENS COMPLEX (PHAEOPHYCEAE,LAMINARIALES)1

The kelp Lessonia nigrescens Bory is the most ecologically and economically important seaweed in rocky intertidal and shallow subtidal habitats along the temperate Pacific South American coasts. Recent molecular studies suggest the existence of two lineages, one (northern lineage) from 17° S to 30° S and a second (central lineage) from 29° S to 41° S. To identify and name these lineages we performed morphological, nomenclatural and field studies. Four external and three internal anatomical traits permitted a morphological separation of the two lineages. The internal structure of both lineages was different from the isolectotype of Lessonia nigrescens. It is therefore concluded that the name Lessonia nigrescens should not be used for the Chilean material. Chordaria spicata Suhr appears as the oldest available name for the central lineage, while Lessonia berteroana Montagne is the oldest name for the northern lineage. In both cases, the type material consisted of small‐sized, apical branches of larger plants. The new combination Lessonia spicata (Suhr) Santelices is proposed for the central lineage and we reinstate Lessonia berteroana for the northern lineage. Laminaria scissa Suhr is reduced to synonym of L. spicata. Representative specimens of Lessonia nigrescens were not found during new visits to its type locality in Cape Horn and along Chile. Future studies should verify the status of this species.     

Distributional patterns of the species of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Valeriana</Emphasis> (Valerianaceae) in southern South America

Distributional patterns of Valeriana species from southern South America were analyzed. We prepared a database with the records of 40 species from Argentina and Chile south of 33°S, obtained from herbarium specimens, published taxonomic studies and field trips. We undertook a track analysis and a parsimony analysis of endemicity (PAE), the latter with 134 grid cells of 1.5° latitude by 1.5° longitude. Three generalized tracks and one node were obtained, and three areas of endemism were identified. These general patterns of distribution in Valeriana were used to infer possible vicariance and dispersal events that might have shaped them. We identified a center of diversification in Central Chile and the Argentinean province of Neuquén. It represents a complex area that is related to both the Central Chilean and Subantarctic subregions.     

Redescription of the larva,and description of the nymphal and adult stages of Ornithodoros peruvianus Kohls,Clifford & Jones, 1969 (Acari: Argasidae)

The soft tick Ornithodoros peruvianus Kohls, Clifford & Jones, 1969 was described as a parasite of bats in Peru upon the examination of engorged larvae only. Recently, larvae of this tick species were reported on bats from northern Chile. However, the adult and nymphal stages of O. peruvianus have remained undescribed. This study aimed to redescribe the larva of O. peruvianus based on unfed specimens, and to describe nymphs, the male and the female of this species. Ticks were collected on the walls inside three caves in northern Chile. Two females laid eggs in the laboratory. Part of the unfed larvae was separated for morphological and morphometrical analyses, and the remaining specimens were fed upon laboratory mice in order to obtain subsequent nymphal and adult stages. The first nymphal stage (N1) moulted either to male or to a second nymphal stage (N2) without feeding. Obtained N2 moulted either to male or female after one meal. PCR amplification of tick mitochondrial 16S rRNA of specimens from the three caves revealed almost identical sequences. The unfed larva of O. peruvianus has an elongated idiosoma, and fringed setae cover the ventral surfaces of coxae, palps and tarsi. Nymph 1 has a thin integument covered by incipient mammillae and barely noticeable dorsal disks; it lacks cheeks and possesses few short setae on the basis capitulum. Nymph 2 has a pair of small cheeks and resembles adult stages in its tegumentary traits and capitulum. Adult stages exhibit developed cheeks (larger in females) without the capacity to completely cover the capitulum. Very small and low mammillae cover the surface of the dorsal idiosoma in adults. As this feature also occurs in other bat-associated soft ticks, regardless of their phylogenetic relatedness, small mammillae in bat soft ticks are suggestive of convergent evolution.

     

Age,growth, and reproduction of blackspot snapper Lutjanus fulviflammus (Forsskål 1775) around Yaeyama Islands,southern Japan,between 2010 and 2014

Age, growth, and reproductive characteristics of blackspot snapper Lutjanus fulviflammus around the Yaeyama Islands (24°N, 124°E) in southern Japan were investigated between 2010 and 2014. Samples were caught by angling or purchased monthly at fish markets to cover all size ranges and seasons. Specimens consisted of 280 females (176–347 mm fork length), 177 males (193–325 mm), and 17 juveniles (42–128 mm). Spawning was confirmed from April to August by the presence of postovulatory follicles, which, based on the occurrence of yolked oocytes possibly also occurred in March and September. Maximum fork length and age in the specimens around Yaeyama Islands were 347 mm and 23 years for females and 325 mm and 21 years for males. These results were compared to those reported previously for the species in other regions by standardized criteria. Possible spawning duration of 7 months in the population around Yaeyama Islands is similar to that in New Caledonia (22°S, 5 months) and Okinawa Island (26°N, 6 months), but shorter than that in Tanzania (8°S) and the southern Arabian Gulf (25°N) (~12 months). The maximum body sizes and ages around Yaeyama Islands are also similar to the populations in New Caledonia and Okinawa Island (>300 mm FL, >20 years old), but larger/older than those in Tanzania and the southern Arabian Gulf (<300 mm FL, <20 years old). These differences are thought to reflect water temperature, i.e. spawning duration is shorter in lower temperature regions (annual mean <26°C, New Caledonia, Okinawa Island, Yaeyama Islands) than in higher temperature regions (annual mean >27°C, Tanzania, southern Arabian Gulf). Subsequently, a shorter spawning duration extends the life‐span as well as the maximum body size. Longevity of blackspot snapper is thought to be negatively correlated with the duration of the spawning season.     

The distribution of Branchiostoma senegalense (Acrania,Branchiostomidae) in the off-shore shelf region off North West Africa

During investigations on the macrobenthos between 17° N and 26° N on the North West African continental shelf, abundant stocks of Branchiostoma were found off Spanish Sahara (23° N-25° N), on the d'Arguin Bank (21° N-20° N) and off Gambia (12° N-13° N). The lancelets were identified as Branchiostoma senegalense (WEBB, 1955) by means of statistical analyses. The lancelet populations occur at dephts down to about 40 m. Deeper regions are probably avoided because of the excessively high detritus content. Favourable environmental factors such as temperature, composition of the sediment and food supply permit high lancelet abundancies. Up to 9000 animals'm² were found in the population off Spanish Sahara. Rough calculations showed that the lancelet population comprises about 6 × 10¹² individuals with a biomass of 1.5 million tons. The potential natality amounts to about 45 × 10¹⁵ larvae a year.     

Morphometric Variation on the Cypress Aphid Cinara cupressi (Buckton) (Hemiptera: Aphididae) Associated to Urban Trees

Cinara cupressi (Buckton) is an important aphid pest of the Cupressaceae family, originally reported in Chile in 2003. Since then, it has spread over 4,000 km, contributing to conservation issues, mostly associated with native and urban trees of the Cupressaceae. In the present work, the morphometric variation of C. cupressi was examined to determine if the species present in Chile corresponds to a specific entity, and to identify variations among specimens from different localities in the study area. Colonies were collected from urban trees from northern, central, and southern Chile. Morphometric data for 14 characters in aphids from 63 localities in all the distribution ranges were measured and analyzed by multivariate analysis. Results showed that the species present in Chile corresponds to C. cupressi like a single specific entity, showing no morphological variation across the regions sampled. Our data will be discussed within the context of correct taxonomic identification for the implementation of effective biological control strategies.     

Welcome back New Zealand: regional biogeography and Gondwanan origin of three endemic genera of mite harvestmen (Arachnida, Opiliones, Cyphophthalmi)

Aim Biogeographers have long been intrigued by New Zealand’s biota due to its unique combination of typical ‘continental’ and ‘island’ characteristics. The New Zealand plateau rifted from the former supercontinent Gondwana c. 80 Ma, and has been isolated from other land masses ever since. Therefore, the flora and fauna of New Zealand include lineages that are Gondwanan in origin, but also include a very large number of endemics. In this study, we analyse the evolutionary relationships of three genera of mite harvestmen (Arachnida, Opiliones, Cyphophthalmi) endemic to New Zealand, both to each other and to their temperate Gondwanan relatives found in Australia, Chile, Sri Lanka and South Africa. Location New Zealand (North Island, South Island and Stewart Island). Methods A total of 94 specimens of the family Pettalidae in the suborder Cyphophthalmi were studied, representing 31 species and subspecies belonging to three endemic genera from New Zealand (Aoraki, Neopurcellia and Rakaia) plus six other members of the family from Chile, South Africa, Sri Lanka and Australia. The phylogeny of these taxa was constructed using morphological and molecular data from five nuclear and mitochondrial genes (18S rRNA, 28S rRNA, 16S rRNA, cytochrome c oxidase subunit I and histone H3, totalling c. 5 kb), which were analysed using dynamic as well as static homology under a variety of optimality criteria. Results The results showed that each of the three New Zealand cyphophthalmid genera is monophyletic, and occupies a distinct geographical region within the archipelago, grossly corresponding to palaeogeographical regions. All three genera of New Zealand mite harvestmen fall within the family Pettalidae with a classic temperate Gondwanan distribution, but they do not render any other genera paraphyletic. Main conclusions Our study shows that New Zealand’s three genera of mite harvestmen are unequivocally related to other members of the temperate Gondwanan family Pettalidae. Monophyly of each genus contradicts the idea of recent dispersal to New Zealand. Within New Zealand, striking biogeographical patterns are apparent in this group of short‐range endemics, particularly in the South Island. These patterns are interpreted in the light of New Zealand’s turbulent geological history and present‐day patterns of forest cover.     

A Comparative Analysis of the Morphology and Morphogenesis of Gonostomum strenua (Engelmann, 1862) (Ciliophora, Hypotrichida) and Related Species

The morphology and morphogenesis of the hypotrichous ciliate, Gonostomum strenua, found in the soil of a hill in Qingdao (Tsingtao, 36°08’N, 120°43’E), People's Republic of China is described. Some characteristics (organization of the frontoventral cirral rows, origin of the primary primordium and arrangement of the marginal as well as transverse cirri) are sufficiently different from a closely related species Gonostomum affine to suggest that it is a separate species, though its body shape, nucleus and buccal apparatus are very similar to that of G. affine. A comparison of the infraciliatures of the two species is necessary since morphological characteristics alone are sometimes insufficient for species separation.     

Genetic divergence of Chilean long‐tailed snake (Philodryas chamissonis) across latitudes: conservation threats for different lineages

Aim The Chilean long‐tailed snake (Philodryas chamissonis) has a wide distribution across different latitudes and ecosystems in Chile ranging from the south of the Atacama Desert (26° S) to the extremely humid Valdivian temperate rain forest (40° S). Throughout this vast distribution, which is isolated by the Andes mountain range on the east and the Pacific Ocean on the west, there are biogeographical boundaries and large geographical barriers that must have played an important role in the distribution of genetic diversity within this species. This study aimed at elucidating the evolutionary history of P. chamissonis in Chile by analysis of mitochondrial DNA sequences. Location Chile (29°41′–38°23′ S). Methods We extracted DNA from 66 tissue samples collected across different latitudes and amplified and sequenced the mitochondrial DNA control region and the NADH dehydrogenase subunit 4 gene for phylogenetic and population analysis. Results Four distinct haplogroups were identified for P. chamissonis. These are highly consistent with a latitudinal geographic pattern, different ecosystems and the increase in topography towards central Chile. Three of the four haplogroups are concentrated in central Chile (33° S latitude) where the highest herpetofaunal diversity of the country is found. The Maipo River acts as historical geographical barrier for the species influenced by Pleistocene glaciation cycles, leading to a marked phylogeographical boundary. A strong population structure was found for the species (Φ_st = 0.78, P < 0.0001), with a high haplotype diversity (h = 0.97 ± 0.01) and nucleotide diversity (π = 0.0151 ± 0.0077). Main conclusions At least three evolutionarily significant units (ESUs) were designated for the species, and these should be taken into account for conservation plans. Three of the four haplogroups found within P. chamissonis are already threatened because their distribution along central Chile overlaps with most of the largest cities in the country.     

Culturing chelifers (Pseudoscorpions) that consume Varroa mites

Chelifers (Pseudoscorpions) are generalist predators of small prey such as mites. Their occasional presence in honeybee hives suggests potential to exploit them as part of a management programme against Varroa mites (Varroa destructor), a significant pest of honeybees. Two species of native New Zealand chelifers Nesochernes gracilis and Heterochernes novaezealandiae, shown to consume Varroa mites, were collected from commercial nucleus hives or in litter surrounding the hives. Methods for mass‐rearing the chelifers were developed to provide specimens for research and introduction into beehives for biological control of Varroa. Cultures were fed aphids and fruit fly larvae in vented containers containing sand and bark. N. gracilis was maintained at 14°C, 18°C, and 22°C. At 18°C, 1423 nymphs were reared from 140 N. gracilis adults, with 84.8% of all nymphs produced at this temperature. H. novaezealandiae was maintained at 18°C and 22°C, with 5 nymphs raised from 12 adults at 18°C and none at the higher temperature.     

Stomach contents of long-finned pilot whales (Globicephala melas) from southern Chile

The widely distributed long-finned pilot whale (Globicephala melas) has been reported off the Chilean coast, from Iquique (20°12′S) south to Navarino Island (55°15′S; 67°30′W), but little is known about its biology or ecology in the region. Here, we report on the prey of this species, identified by stomach content analyses from animals stranded on Holget Islets, Beagle Channel, southern Chile in August 2006. The stomachs of seven individuals (six females and one male) contained cephalopod remains. The prey composition found in these southern Chilean pilot whales was similar to that described in other parts of the world and the Southern Ocean. This is the first report on the feeding habits of this species from Chile.     

Is Anisakis simplex s.l. a biological marker for stock identification of Strangomera bentincki from Chile?

The absence of the larval Anisakis simplex s. l. in samples from central Chile but heavy infections in fish from southern localities suggest the existence of two stocks of Strangomera bentincki, one closely associated with the central coast of Chile (landing port San Antonio and Talcahuano, c. 33° 30′ S–36° 40′ S) and the other associated with southern Chile (landing port Puerto Montt, c. 41° 30′ S). Results confirm the usefulness of metazoan parasites, like A. simplex s. l. as biological markers.     

The Miocene Architectonicidae (Gastropoda) of Chile

Three new species of Architectonicidae Heliacinae,Heliacus (Torinista) chonos, Heliacus (Grandeliacus) antu andSolatisonax bieleri, are described. These include the first reports ofGrandeliacus andSolatisonax from Chile.Solarium australe Philippi, 1887 is an earlier name forHeliacus (Torinista) bahamondei Frassinetti & Covacevich, 1981, but is a junior homonym ofS. australe Philippi, 1849. Type material and new specimens of the five previously described architectonicid species from Chile are described and figured for comparison. Together with other gastropod taxa from the same deposits, Architectonicidae provide evidence for tropical to subtropical water temperatures in central Chile during the early Miocene.     

DISTINCTION OF SOUTH AMERICAN HAPLOGLOIA ANDERSONII AND CHORDARIA LINEARIS (PHAEOPHYCEAE) BASED ON DIFFERENCES IN SEXUAL REPRODUCTION,MORPHOLOGY, ECOPHYSIOLOGY,AND DISTRIBUTION1

Haplogloia andersonii (Farlow) Levring is an anti-tropical species that occurs on cold and warm-temperate Pacific coasts of both Americas. In its habit it resembles the subantarctic species Chordaria linearis (Hooker et Harvey) Cotton. Culture studies show that the species differ in morphology and ecophysiology of their microscopic gametophytes and in gamete behavior. Details of sporophyte anatomy are presented that also allow the distinction of field plants. In South America, H. andersonii occurs only on the Pacific coast, from central Perú (14°S) to southern Chile (50°S). Chordaria linearis occurs on the Pacific coast from Chiloé Island (43°S) to Cape Horn (56°S). In the shared area the species may co-occur. On the Atlantic coast, C. linearis was newly collected at a locality in northern Patagonia (41°S). In addition, C. linearis occurs in Antarctica. Haplogloia moniliformis Richer, recently described from Macquarie Island, is probably synonymous with Chordaria linearis.     

DISTRIBUTION AND SYSTEMATICS OF BATRACHOSPERMUM(BATRACHOSPERMALES,RHODOPHYTA) IN NORTH AMERICA. 6. SECTION TURFOSA1

Twenty-one populations of Batrachospermum section Turfosa from North America were compared to nine type and two historically important specimens using multivariate morphometrics and image analysis. The protologues of six other infrageneric taxa were also compared. From this analysis, six species are recognized worldwide: B, de-sikacharyi Sankaran, B. gombakense Kumano et Ratnasabapathy, B. keratophytum Bory de Saint-Vincent [syn. B. vagum var. keratophytum (Bory de Saint-Vincent) Sirodot, B. gulbenkianum Reis, and B. suevorum Kützing nom. Meg.], B. sinense Jao, B. turfosum Bory de Saint-Vincent [syn. B. vagum (Roth) C. Agardh and B. vagum var. undulato-pedicellatum Kumano et Watanabe], and B. vogesiacum F. G. Schultz ex Skuja [syn. B. vagum var. flagelliforme Sirodot, B. flagelliforme (Sirodot) Necchi], These species are distinguished on the basis of carposporophyte-bearing branch cortication, secondary fascicle development, monoecy or dioecy, presence of spermatangia on involucral filaments and monosporangia, and dimensions of trichogynes and carposporangia. Peripheral cortication has been previously used to separate species in this section, but we observed that this feature is quite widespread in the section. Presence of indeterminate gonimoblast filaments has been reported for some taxa in section Turfosa, but no such structures were seen in any of the specimens examined. Only B. keratophytum has been collected in North America, ranging from southwestern Greenland (64°N) to Louisiana (30° N).