Determinants of contraceptive use in Nepal

This 1981 study is the 1st of its kind in Nepal. Analysis using a logit-linear model showed that contraceptive use in Nepal depends on many factors. Women aged 35-49 are 3 times more likely than women aged 15-24 to use contraceptives. Women with 4 or more children are 8 times more likely to use contraceptives than women with 1 or no children, and 2.5 times more likely than women with 2 or 3 children. The use of contraceptives is greatest among women whose offspring includes more sons than daughters, and least among women whose offspring are all daughters. Women who desire no more children are 5 to 6 times more likely to use contraceptives than women who desire more children. Women who have discussed desired family size with their husbands are more than 4 times more likely to use contraceptives than women lacking this type of communication. Women with some schooling are twice as likely to use contraceptives as women with no schooling. Contraceptive use is higher among women who do nonfarm work than farm work, and higher still among women who do not work. Urban women were almost twice as likely to use contraceptives as rural women. Women with less than 1 hour access to a family planning service outlet were 2 to 3 times more likely to use contraceptives than women whose access to these facilities was greater than 1 hour. The number of previous child losses per woman had no significant effect in contraceptive use. Conclusions are based on analysis of data from the Nepal Contraceptive Prevalence Survey, 1981.     

What Distinguishes Women with Unusually High Numbers of Sex Partners?

We recruited two groups of women who differed in their number of lifetime sex partners in order to investigate several hypotheses related to female sociosexuality. Specifically, we explored whether women who engage in casual sex have low mate value, are especially likely to have come from stressful family environments, or are masculine in other respects besides their interest in casual sex. Women with many partners were not lower than other women on direct or indirect indicators of mate value. Nor were they more likely to recall adverse family environments during childhood. On several measures related to masculinity, women with many sex partners were elevated compared with other women.     

The implications of changing hormonal contraceptive use after relationship formation

Modern-day environments differ drastically from those in which humans evolved, which likely has important implications for human mating psychology. Particularly notable is the modern advancement of hormonal contraceptives (HCs), which alter the natural hormones of the many women who use them. According to the HC congruency hypothesis, HCs alter sex hormones and brain processes that are linked to numerous relationship preferences. In light of work suggesting such preferences play an important role in relationship evaluations, changing HC use during a long-term relationship (relative to use at relationship formation) should impact women's relationships. We used data from two independent longitudinal studies of 203 newlywed couples to address this possibility. Results demonstrated that wives reported lower sexual satisfaction (but not marital satisfaction) when their HC use was incongruent (versus congruent) with their use at relationship formation. These findings provide preliminary support for the HC congruency hypothesis, though we also broaden our theoretical framework to offer methodological recommendations for future research.     

Combining Weight‐Loss Counseling with the Weight Watchers Plan for Obese Breast Cancer Survivors

Objective: The objective was to develop effective weight‐loss methods for women who have had breast cancer, because obesity may result in an adverse prognosis. Research Methods and Procedures: This randomized pilot study tested an individualized approach toward weight loss in obese women who have had a diagnosis of breast cancer. An individualized approach was applied either alone or combined with the commercial Weight Watchers program. Forty‐eight women (body mass index of 30 to 44 kg/m²) were enrolled. Results: Weight change after 12 months of intervention was as follows (mean ± SD): 0.85 ± 6.0 kg in the control group, ?2.6 ± 5.9 kg in the Weight Watchers group, ?8.0 ± 5.5 kg in the individualized group, and ?9.4 ± 8.6 kg in the comprehensive group that used both individualized counseling and Weight Watchers. Weight loss relative to control was statistically significant in the comprehensive group 3, 6, and 12 months after randomization, whereas weight loss in the individualized group was significant only at 12 months. Weight loss of 10% or more of initial body weight was observed in 6 of 10 women in the comprehensive group at 12 months. In the comprehensive and Weight Watchers–only groups, weight loss was significantly related to frequency of attendance at Weight Watchers meetings, and attendance was more frequent in the comprehensive group. Discussion: These data indicate that the most weight loss was achieved when the counseling approach combined both Weight Watchers and individualized contacts. This was effective even though most of the individualized contacts were by telephone.     

Antes and Hoy DÍa: Plant knowledge and categorization as adaptations to life in Panama in the Twenty-First Century

Ethnobotanical studies often assume plant knowledge is shared by all members of an arbitrarily bounded human group. By describing the uses and local categorization of plants in one village in rural Panama in a heteroglossic approach, the different knowledges within a village are presented in one article. Plants used in the daily work of women and men, and the work of village spe-cialists are described. Villagers negotiate changing realities by adapting plant use and knowl-edge; this is reflected in local categorization of plant names into antes and hoy dia. Unlike the established ethnobotanical assumption that bounded units of plant knowledge are dying, the younger generations of villagers, who work both within and outside the village, know more plants useful to their changing economic opportunities. Subsistence agriculturalists possess the adaptive plant knowledge skills to be stewards of the environment.     

A Survey of Women Graduates from a Canadian Medical School

Information was obtained from 104 of 106 surviving women medical graduates of the University of Western Ontario in a study designed to determine subsequent working careers and related factors. Of those who had graduated six or more years before this study 85% were engaged in medical work (66% full-time and 19% part-time). General practice, psychiatry and preventive medicine were the leading categories of work. Childbearing was the most important determinant of occupational status. Fewer of the women who had borne children were currently engaged in medical work than were either single or childless married women. The apparent contribution of other factors to working status arose from their correlation with child-bearing. Comparison with other studies suggests that the percentage of female graduates doing medical work is substantially higher than in Britain and about the same as in the United States.     

Evolutionary precursors of social norms in chimpanzees: a new approach

Moral behaviour, based on social norms, is commonly regarded as a hallmark of humans. Hitherto, humans are perceived to be the only species possessing social norms and to engage in moral behaviour. There is anecdotal evidence suggesting their presence in chimpanzees, but systematic studies are lacking. Here, we examine the evolution of human social norms and their underlying psychological mechanisms. For this, we distinguish between conventions, cultural social norms and universal social norms. We aim at exploring whether chimpanzees possess evolutionary precursors of universal social norms seen in humans. Chimpanzees exhibit important preconditions for their presence and enforcement: tolerant societies, well-developed social-cognitive skills and empathetic competence. Here, we develop a theoretical framework for recognizing different functional levels of social norms and distinguish them from mere statistical behavioural regularities. Quasi social norms are found where animals behave functionally moral without having moral emotions. In proto social norms, moral emotions might be present but cannot be collectivized due to the absence of a uniquely human psychological trait, i.e. shared intentionality. Human social norms, whether they are universal or cultural, involve moral emotions and are collectivized. We will discuss behaviours in chimpanzees that represent potential evolutionary precursors of human universal social norms, with special focus on social interactions involving infants. We argue that chimpanzee infants occupy a special status within their communities and propose that tolerance towards them might represent a proto social norm. Finally, we discuss possible ways to test this theoretical framework.     

Relationship of prenatal alcohol use with maternal and prenatal factors in American Indian women

Demographic factors and patterns of substance use among women who did not consume alcohol during pregnancy were compared to women who did consume alcohol during pregnancy. One-hundred seventy-seven Northern Plains Indian women who received prenatal care at an urban clinic in a rural state were screened for substance use as part of the validation study with a self-administered questionnaire. Women who drank during pregnancy were more likely to be single and have less education than women who did not drink. While most of the women in the study had available transportation resources, the women who drank during pregnancy were less likely to have transportation than the women who did not drink. Women who drank during pregnancy consumed more alcohol more frequently before pregnancy than did women who drank before but not during pregnancy. Compared to women who did not drink during pregnancy, women who drank during pregnancy were more likely to smoke cigarettes and use illicit drugs, to have parents who drank, to feel they drank the same or more than other pregnant women, or to have experienced more relationship breakups and physical and emotional abuse. Prenatal patients who drink alcohol during pregnancy need more intensive counseling regarding their multiple risk behaviors.     

Employee Attitudes about the Impact of Visitation Dogs on a College Campus

Therapy and visitation dogs are becoming more common on college campuses to provide comfort and support to students, but little attention has been given to the concerns of faculty and staff who share space with the dogs in their workplaces. The purpose of this study was to assess the perceptions of faculty and staff with regard to both the benefits and the hazards (e.g., dander, bites, fleas) and risks associated with the presence of visitation dogs in their workplaces. One hundred and thirty-eight employees who worked in buildings with resident visitation dogs completed an online survey about their perceptions of the hazards and risks of the dogs and the effects of dogs on the wellbeing of both students and employees. In general, employees perceived that the dogs presented minimal risks, and most employees believed that they can reduce stress and provide comfort to students on campus. There were a few employees, however, who reported that the dogs did not improve the work environment and conferred no benefits to the staff or students. The findings of the present survey support the mostly positive attitudes that people have for dogs in the workplace, but they also highlight a potential challenge: accommodating individuals who believe very strongly that dogs do not belong in work environments.     

Cycling on the fast track: Ovulatory shifts in sexual motivation as a proximate mechanism for regulating life history strategies

In an ancestral world without modern contraception, how did women regulate their fertility? We argue that fertility may be regulated by context-dependent changes in sexual motivation that are specific to the high-fertility phase of the menstrual cycle. Accordingly, we predicted that ovulatory changes in sexual motivation would vary as a function of women's life history strategies, operationalized in terms of exposure to adverse childhood environments (high unpredictability, low SES, and low father quality). We tested this prediction in a sample of 1004 naturally cycling, pair-bonded women recruited using Amazon Mechanical Turk. Data show that women from adverse childhood backgrounds experienced higher in-pair sexual motivation and engaged in more in-pair sexual behavior at high fertility, compared to women from childhood backgrounds with low adversity. Women from low-adversity childhood backgrounds were more likely to exhibit ovulatory decreases in sexual motivation at early stages in their relationships. We found little evidence, however, that childhood environments interact with conception risk to predict women's extra-pair motivation and behavior. Results offer evidence that women may possess evolved psychological and behavioral mechanisms for regulating the timing of reproduction.     

Dressed for sex: red as a female sexual signal in humans

Background

In many non-human primate species, a display of red by a female serves as a sexual signal to attract male conspecifics. Red is associated with sex and romance in humans, and women convey their sexual interest to men through a variety of verbal, postural, and behavioral means. In the present research, we investigate whether female red ornamentation in non-human primates has a human analog, whereby women use a behavioral display of red to signal their sexual interest to men.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Three studies tested the hypothesis that women use red clothing to communicate sexual interest to men in profile pictures on dating websites. In Study 1, women who imagined being interested in casual sex were more likely to display red (but not other colors) on their anticipated web profile picture. In Study 2, women who indicated interest in casual sex were more likely to prominently display red (but not other colors) on their actual web profile picture. In Study 3, women on a website dedicated to facilitating casual sexual relationships were more likely to prominently exhibit red (but not other colors) than women on a website dedicated to facilitating marital relationships.

Conclusions/Significance

These results establish a provocative parallel between women and non-human female primates in red signal coloration in the mating game. This research shows, for the first time, a functional use of color in women''s sexual self-presentation, and highlights the need to extend research on color beyond physics, physiology, and preference to psychological functioning.     

Abortion experience among obstetric patients at Korle-Bu Hospital, Accra, Ghana

Hospital admissions for complications of abortion have been increasing in Africa, indicating a rise in the incidence of abortion. In all pregnant women ever admitted to Korle-Bu hospital in Accra, Ghana, the chance that the outcome of their last pregnancy was an induced abortion decreased as the number of previous pregnancies increased. Women with higher levels of education were more likely to have their 1st pregnancy terminated in an induced abortion. Younger women were more likely than older women at each level of education to have an induced abortion terminate a 1st pregnancy. The use of contraceptives during the last pregnancy interval increased with the level of education of the woman and the number of previous pregnancies. Contraceptive use was also highest among women whose last pregnancy outcome was an induced abortion. The mean pregnancy interval decreased with increasing number of previous pregnancies for both women who used and who did not use contraceptives during their last pregnancy interval. But the mean pregnancy interval was higher among women who used contraceptives. It appears that the abortion experience in this region of Africa is most common in lower parity young women with high levels of education who desire to delay a 1st birth or to space births. This is in contrast in Latin America and other developing countries in which abortion is used mainly by older, married, urban women to limit family size. Contraceptive use in this region of Africa is low, indicating the need for more family planning programs and increasing use of existing programs.     

Glasgow Medical Women 1951-4: Their Contribution and Attitude to Medical Work

A questionary sent to 137 women who qualified in Glasgow during 1951–4 showed that of the 106 respondents 24% of the married women were unemployed and only 31% were working full-time. The married women had fewer qualifications than a matched group of male contemporaries, and fewer of those in hospital work were consultants. The married women in full-time work had fewer children and showed some differences in their background compared with those working part-time or unemployed. Most part-time workers were satisfied with their present posts and did not wish to work more.     

Olfactory sensitivity of subjects working in odorous environments

The aim of the present study was to investigate whether people with a professional interest in odors also exhibit higher olfactory sensitivity. To this end, we investigated 58 subjects (age 33.6 +/- 11.0 years, mean +/- SD; 55 women) employed in perfume retail outlets and compared their olfactory sensitivity to 58 controls (age 34.6 +/- 9.9 years; 53 women) matched for age, gender and professional activities who did not work in such odorous environments. Olfactory function was assessed using the 'Sniffin' Sticks' test kit which includes tests for n-butanol odor threshold, odor discrimination and odor identification. Subjects working in perfume retail outlets scored higher in odor discrimination tests compared to controls. Working in an odorous environment for a full day had no major effect on general olfactory abilities, as indicated by measures performed at the beginning and end of a working day. Taken together, results from the present study do not support the idea that odorous environments are deleterious to general olfactory function.     

Changes in the timing of births in Melbourne, Australia

2 10-year marriage cohorts from 2 surveys of married women in Melbourne were compared on their timing of the 1st and 2nd births. The results showed that women who were married in the early 1970s were much more likely to delay their first birth until about the 3rd or 4th year of marriage compared with women who married in the 1960s. This tendency to delay the 1st birth was probably aided by effective contraception, as it coincided with widespread use of the oral contraceptive. There was no difference in the timing of the 2nd birth in relation th the 1st birth between the 2 marriage cohorts. Women who delayed childbearing also preferred smaller families. Indeed, the increase in the % of women delaying childbearing appears to be synonymous with the trend toward the two-child family. Altough the number of married women in the labor force increased significantly from the early to the later cohort, a desire to work was not usually cited as the reason for delaying childbearing. Rather, economic reasons were most frequently mentioned for delaying childbearing.     

Longitudinal Relationships Among Overweight,Life Satisfaction,and Aspirations in Young Women

Objective: This study investigated associations of overweight status and changes in overweight status over time with life satisfaction and future aspirations among a community sample of young women. Research Methods and Procedures: A total of 7865 young women, initially 18 to 23 years of age, completed two surveys that were 4 years apart. These women provided data on their future life aspirations in the areas of further education, work/career, marital status, and children, as well as their satisfaction with achievements to date in a number of life domains. Women reported their height and weight and their sociodemographic characteristics, including current socioeconomic status (occupation). Results: Young women's aspirations were cross‐sectionally related to BMI category, such that obese women were less likely to aspire to further education, although this relationship seemed explained largely by current occupation. Even after adjusting for current occupation, young women who were obese were more dissatisfied with work/career/study, family relationships, partner relationships, and social activities. Weight status was also longitudinally associated with aspirations and life satisfaction. Women who were overweight or obese at both surveys were more likely than other women to aspire to “other” types of employment (including self‐employed and unpaid work in the home) as opposed to full‐time employment. They were also less likely to be satisfied with study or partner relationships. Women who resolved their overweight/obesity status were more likely to aspire to being childless than other women. Discussion: These results suggest that being overweight/obese may have a lasting effect on young women's life satisfaction and their future life aspirations.     

Physicians' beliefs and behaviour during a randomized controlled trial of episiotomy: consequences for women in their care.

OBJECTIVE: To evaluate whether physicians'' beliefs concerning episiotomy are related to their use of procedures and to differential outcomes in childbirth. DESIGN: Post-hoc cohort analysis of physicians and patients involved in a randomized controlled trial of episiotomy. SETTING: Two tertiary care hospitals and one community hospital in Montreal. PARTICIPANTS: Of the 703 women at low risk of medical or obstetric problems enrolled in the trial we studied 447 women (226 primiparous and 221 multiparous) attended by 43 physicians. Subjects attended by residents or nurses were excluded. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Patients: intact perineum v. perineal trauma, length of labour, procedures used (instrumental delivery, oxytocin augmentation of labour, cesarean section and episiotomy), position for birth, rate of and reasons for not assigning women to a study arm, postpartum perineal pain and satisfaction with the birth experience, physicians: beliefs concerning episiotomy. RESULTS: Women attended by physicians who viewed episiotomy very unfavorably were more likely than women attended by the other physicians to have an intact perineum (23% v. 11% to 13%, p < 0.05) and to experience less perineal trauma. The first stage of labour was 2.3 to 3.5 hours shorter for women attended by physicians who viewed episiotomy favourably than for women attended by physicians who viewed episiotomy very unfavorably (p < 0.05 to < 0.01), and the former physicians were more likely to use oxytocin augmentation of labour. Physicians who viewed episiotomy more favourably failed more often than those who viewed the procedure very unfavourably to assign patients to a study arm late in labour (odds ratio [OR] 1.88, p < 0.05), both overall and because they felt that "fetal distress" or cesarean section necessitated exclusion of the subject. They used the lithotomy position for birth more often (OR 3.94 to 4.55, p < 0.001), had difficulty limiting episiotomy in the restricted-use arm of the trial and diagnosed fetal distress and perineal inadequacy more often than the comparison groups. The patients of physicians who viewed episiotomy very favourably experienced more perineal pain (p < 0.01), and of those who viewed episiotomy favourably and very favourably experienced less satisfaction with the birth experience (p < 0.01) than the patients of physicians who viewed the procedure very unfavourably. CONCLUSIONS: Physicians with favourably views of episiotomy were more likely to use techniques to expedite labour, and their patients were more likely to have perineal trauma and to be less satisfied with the birth experience. This evidence that physician beliefs can influence patient outcomes has both clinical and research implications.     

Preconception care for women with diabetes and prevention of major congenital malformations

This article provides an overview of the rationale for diabetes preconception care interventions for women with diabetes and the efficacy in reducing the excess occurrence of major congenital malformations. The problems with broad use of individualized preconception care are considered. In addition, suggestions are made for the implementation of more comprehensive interventions in the community and usual diabetes care settings, to address the multiple ongoing challenges in the prevention of structural anomalies associated with preexisting diabetes. Based on the published evidence, successful preconception care can be considered to include: achievement of individualized target standardized glycosylated hemoglobin levels, adequate nutrition, and minimizing hypoglycemia before and after discontinuing effective contraception and during the transition to early prenatal care.     

Promotion of breast-feeding in a Chinese community in Montreal.

Following a prospective survey that showed a very low rate of breast-feeding (10%) in 1977-79 among Chinese women in Montreal, a culturally targeted program, which included individual prenatal counselling and a community-wide promotion and education campaign, was developed to improve the rates. The study group consisted of all Chinese women delivering in 1980 and 1981 who had taken their infants to one pediatrician for continuing care. The rates of breast-feeding in the 88 women who had received prenatal counselling and the 93 women who had not were compared. Although the rates were substantially increased for both groups over the 1977-79 rate (54% and 34% in 1980 and 65% and 55% in 1981 respectively), the 2-year rate was significantly higher for the counselled group compared with the uncounselled group in the later study (59% v. 43%). The greatest effect of counselling was seen in young, primiparous women of higher socioeconomic status who spoke French or English in addition to Chinese. However, 33% of the counselled women who had started breast-feeding had stopped by 1 month, compared with only 15% of the uncounselled women. Thus, although the rates of breast-feeding in ethnic groups can be increased with the use of a language- and culture-specific approach, more support and encouragement must be given to women who start breast-feeding so that they will continue longer.