An evolutionarily conserved function of the Drosophila insulin receptor and insulin-like peptides in growth control

BACKGROUND: Size regulation is fundamental in developing multicellular organisms and occurs through the control of cell number and cell size. Studies in Drosophila have identified an evolutionarily conserved signaling pathway that regulates organismal size and that includes the Drosophila insulin receptor substrate homolog Chico, the lipid kinase PI(3)K (Dp110), DAkt1/dPKB, and dS6K. RESULTS: We demonstrate that varying the activity of the Drosophila insulin receptor homolog (DInr) during development regulates organ size by changing cell size and cell number in a cell-autonomous manner. An amino acid substitution at the corresponding position in the kinase domain of the human and Drosophila insulin receptors causes severe growth retardation. Furthermore, we show that the Drosophila genome contains seven insulin-like genes that are expressed in a highly tissue- and stage-specific pattern. Overexpression of one of these insulin-like genes alters growth control in a DInr-dependent manner. CONCLUSIONS: This study shows that the Drosophila insulin receptor autonomously controls cell and organ size, and that overexpression of a gene encoding an insulin-like peptide is sufficient to increase body size.     

Sulfogalactolipid binding protein SLIP 1: a conserved function for a conserved protein

We have studied the species and tissue expression of the 68kD sulfogalactolipid binding protein SLIP 1, originally detected in the male germ cells of the rat (Lingwood: Can. J. Biochem. Cell Biol., 63:1077-1085, 1985). Our results show that SLIP 1 has been highly conserved during evolution and is found in the testes of all vertebrates tested. In studies in the rat, we have found that SLIP 1 is, however, tissue restricted, being found only in the brain (also a major site of sulfogalactolipid biosynthesis) in addition to the testis. SLIP 1 was also detected in mammalian oocytes. The SLIP 1 species detected in brain and oocytes retain the sulfogalactolipid-binding characteristics of rat testicular SLIP 1, indicating that, in addition to immunological features, the glycolipid-binding function of SLIP 1 is conserved in these tissues.     

Structural organization of essential iron-sulfur clusters in the evolutionarily highly conserved ATP-binding cassette protein ABCE1

The ABC protein ABCE1, formerly named RNase L inhibitor RLI1, is one of the most conserved proteins in evolution and is expressed in all organisms except eubacteria. Because of its fundamental role in translation initiation and/or ribosome biosynthesis, ABCE1 is essential for life. Its molecular mechanism has, however, not been elucidated. In addition to two ABC ATPase domains, ABCE1 contains a unique N-terminal region with eight conserved cysteines, predicted to coordinate iron-sulfur clusters. Here we present detailed information on the type and on the structural organization of the Fe-S clusters in ABCE1. Based on biophysical, biochemical, and yeast genetic analyses, ABCE1 harbors two essential diamagnetic [4Fe-4S](2+) clusters with different electronic environments, one ferredoxin-like (CPX(n)CX(2)CX(2)C; Cys at positions 4-7) and one unique ABCE1-type cluster (CXPX(2)CX(3)CX(n)CP; Cys at positions 1, 2, 3, and 8). Strikingly, only seven of the eight conserved cysteines coordinating the Fe-S clusters are essential for cell viability. Mutagenesis of the cysteine at position 6 yielded a functional ABCE1 with the ferredoxin-like Fe-S cluster in a paramagnetic [3Fe-4S](+) state. Notably, a lethal mutation of the cysteine at position 4 can be rescued by ligand swapping with an adjacent, extra cysteine conserved among all eukaryotes.     

The organization of the evolutionarily conserved GATA/GACA repeats in the mouse genome

Simple repeated GATA and GACA sequences which were originally isolated from sex-specific snake satellite DNA have been found subsequently in all eukaryotes studied. The organization of these sequences within the mouse genome was investigated here by using synthetic oligonucleotide probes as a novel tool in comparison with conventional hybridization probes. Southern blot hybridization showed sex-specific patterns with both the (GATA)₄ and (GACA)₄ oligonucleotide probes, as previously described with conventional probes. The quantitative analysis of two mouse DNA phage libraries and of 25 isolated GATA-positive phage clones revealed intensive interspersion of GATA sequences with GACA, and with other repetitive and single-copy sequences. Ubiquitous interspersion and homogeneous genomic distribution of GATA and GACA sequences were confirmed by hybridization in situ of the oligonucleotide probes to metaphase chromosomes. The lengths of the GATA and GACA stretches were found to vary considerably in the individual phage clones. DNA inserts from 20 phages were assigned to autosomes and sex chromosomes and three genomic fragments were found to be confined to the Y chromosome. The organization of GATA and GACA sequences is discussed in the context of their evolutionary potential and possible conservation mechanisms.     

Dmbx1, a novel evolutionarily conserved paired-like homeobox gene expressed in the brain of mouse embryos.

To identify novel homeobox genes expressed during mouse embryogenesis, we searched the databases and found a novel mouse paired-like homeobox gene, Dmbx1(diencephalon/mesencephalon-expressed brain homeobox gene 1), that is also conserved in zebrafish and human. Linkage analysis mapped mouse Dmbx1 to the mid-portion of chromosome 4 that is the homologous gene cluster region of human chromosome 1, where human DMBX1 is located. Both mouse and human Dmbx1/DMBX1 have four coding exons and their gene structures are conserved. Whole-mount in situ hybridization revealed that Dmbx1 expression is detected in 7.5-9.5 dpc mouse embryos. At 7.5 and 8.5 dpc, Dmbx1 is expressed in a sub-region of the anterior head folds. At 9.5 dpc, expression is observed in the caudal diencephalon as well as in the mesencephalon and is restricted to the neuroepithelium. Expression in adult tissues was detected in brain, stomach, and testis. Dmbx1 provides a unique marker of the developing anterior nervous system and should provide a useful molecular resource to elucidate the mechanisms that pattern the vertebrate brain.     

The evolutionarily conserved protein Las1 is required for pre-rRNA processing at both ends of ITS2

Ribosome synthesis entails the formation of mature rRNAs from long precursor molecules, following a complex pre-rRNA processing pathway. Why the generation of mature rRNA ends is so complicated is unclear. Nor is it understood how pre-rRNA processing is coordinated at distant sites on pre-rRNA molecules. Here we characterized, in budding yeast and human cells, the evolutionarily conserved protein Las1. We found that, in both species, Las1 is required to process ITS2, which separates the 5.8S and 25S/28S rRNAs. In yeast, Las1 is required for pre-rRNA processing at both ends of ITS2. It is required for Rrp6-dependent formation of the 5.8S rRNA 3' end and for Rat1-dependent formation of the 25S rRNA 5' end. We further show that the Rat1-Rai1 5'-3' exoribonuclease (exoRNase) complex functionally connects processing at both ends of the 5.8S rRNA. We suggest that pre-rRNA processing is coordinated at both ends of 5.8S rRNA and both ends of ITS2, which are brought together by pre-rRNA folding, by an RNA processing complex. Consistently, we note the conspicuous presence of ~7- or 8-nucleotide extensions on both ends of 5.8S rRNA precursors and at the 5' end of pre-25S RNAs suggestive of a protected spacer fragment of similar length.     

MPS1: a small, evolutionarily conserved zinc finger protein from the protozoan Toxoplasma gondii

Production of tissue factor (TF) in response to lipopolysaccharide (LPS) was examined in human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) transfected with human CD14 DNA. The expression of CD14 on HUVECs dramatically enhanced the production of TF at a low concentration of LPS in the absence of fetal calf serum (FCS). On the other hand, mock-transfected HUVECs did not respond to even a high concentration of LPS. TF production in CD14-expressing HUVECs was significantly inhibited by anti-CD14 monoclonal antibody. Addition of FCS to the culture of CD14-expressing HUVECs markedly augmented the LPS-induced TF production, whereas only a marginal effect was observed in mock-transfected HUVECs. The findings suggested that the integration of membrane CD14 rendered HUVECs highly sensitive to LPS in the production of TF irrespective of the presence of FCS.     

LETM1, a gene deleted in Wolf-Hirschhorn syndrome, encodes an evolutionarily conserved mitochondrial protein

The leucine zipper-, EF-hand-containing transmembrane protein 1 (LETM1) has recently been cloned in an attempt to identify genes deleted in Wolf-Hirschhorn syndrome (WHS), a microdeletion syndrome characterized by severe growth and mental retardation, hypotonia, seizures, and typical facial dysmorphic features. LETM1 is deleted in almost all patients with the full phenotype and has recently been suggested as an excellent candidate gene for the seizures in WHS patients. We have shown that LETM1 is evolutionarily conserved throughout the eukaryotic kingdom and exhibits homology to MDM38, a putative yeast protein involved in mitochondrial morphology. Using LETM1-EGFP fusion constructs and an anti-rat LetM1 polyclonal antibody we have demonstrated that LETM1 is located in the mitochondria. The present study presents information about a possible function for LETM1 and suggests that at least some (neuromuscular) features of WHS may be caused by mitochondrial dysfunction.     

Region- and cell type-selective expression of the evolutionarily conserved Nolz-1/zfp503 gene in the developing mouse hindbrain

Nolz-1/Zfp503, a zinc finger-containing gene, is a mammalian member of the SP1-related nocA/elb/tlp-1 gene family. Previous studies have shown that Nolz-1 homologs are important for patterning the rhombomeres in zebrafish hindbrain. We therefore studied the expression pattern of Nolz-1 in the developing mouse hindbrain. Nolz-1 mRNA expression was detected in the prospective rhombomere 3, 5 and caudal regions as early as E8.75. After E11.5, Nolz-1-positive cells were organized as distinct cell clusters, and they were largely non-overlapped with either Pax2-positive or Phox2b-positive domains. Most interestingly, we found that Nolz-1 was specifically expressed by Phox2b-negative/Isl1/2-positive somatic motor neurons, but not by Phox2b-positive/Isl1/2-positive branchial and visceral motor neurons, suggesting that Nolz-1 may regulate development of somatic motor neurons in the hindbrain. In addition to be expressed in differentiating post-mitotic neurons, Nolz-1 was also expressed by progenitor cells in the ventricular zone located in the dorsal part of aqueduct and the alar plates of hindbrain, which suggests a regulatory role of Nolz-1 in the germinal zone. Taken together, based on its domain- and cell type-selective pattern, Nolz-1 may involve in regulation of various developmental processes, including regional patterning and cell-type specification and differentiation in the developing mouse hindbrain.     

Regulation of Six1 expression by evolutionarily conserved enhancers in tetrapods

The Six1 homeobox gene plays critical roles in vertebrate organogenesis. Mice deficient for Six1 show severe defects in organs such as skeletal muscle, kidney, thymus, sensory organs and ganglia derived from cranial placodes, and mutations in human SIX1 cause branchio-oto-renal syndrome, an autosomal dominant developmental disorder characterized by hearing loss and branchial defects. The present study was designed to identify enhancers responsible for the dynamic expression pattern of Six1 during mouse embryogenesis. The results showed distinct enhancer activities of seven conserved non-coding sequences (CNSs) retained in tetrapod Six1 loci. The activities were detected in all cranial placodes (excluding the lens placode), dorsal root ganglia, somites, nephrogenic cord, notochord and cranial mesoderm. The major Six1-expression domains during development were covered by the sum of activities of these enhancers, together with the previously identified enhancer for the pre-placodal region and foregut endoderm. Thus, the eight CNSs identified in a series of our study represent major evolutionarily conserved enhancers responsible for the expression of Six1 in tetrapods. The results also confirmed that chick electroporation is a robust means to decipher regulatory information stored in vertebrate genomes. Mutational analysis of the most conserved placode-specific enhancer, Six1-21, indicated that the enhancer integrates a variety of inputs from Sox, Pax, Fox, Six, Wnt/Lef1 and basic helix-loop-helix proteins. Positive autoregulation of Six1 is achieved through the regulation of Six protein-binding sites. The identified Six1 enhancers provide valuable tools to understand the mechanism of Six1 regulation and to manipulate gene expression in the developing embryo, particularly in the sensory organs.     

The evolutionarily conserved domain of Beclin 1 is required for Vps34 binding, autophagy and tumor suppressor function

Atg6/Beclin 1 is an evolutionarily conserved protein family that has been shown to function in vacuolar protein sorting (VPS) in yeast; in autophagy in yeast, Drosophila, Dictyostelium, C.elegans, and mammals; and in tumor suppression in mice. Atg6/Beclin 1 is thought to function as a VPS and autophagy protein as part of a complex with Class III phosphatidylinositol 3'-kinase (PI3K)/Vps34. However, nothing is known about which domains of Atg6/Beclin 1 are required for its functional activity and binding to Vps34. We hypothesized that the most highly conserved region of human Beclin 1 spanning from amino acids 244-337 is essential for Vps34 binding, autophagy, and tumor suppressor function. To investigate this hypothesis, we evaluated the effects of wild-type and mutant beclin 1 gene transfer in autophagy-deficient MCF7 human breast carcinoma cells. We found that, unlike wild-type Beclin 1, a Beclin 1 mutant lacking aa 244-337 (Beclin 1DeltaECD), is unable to enhance starvation-induced autophagy in low Beclin 1-expressing MCF7 human breast carcinoma cells. In contrast to wild-type Beclin 1, mutant Beclin 1DeltaECD is unable to immunoprecipitate Vps34, has no Beclin 1-associated Vps34 kinase activity, and lacks tumor suppressor function in an MCF7 scid mouse xenograft tumor model. The maturation of cathepsin D, which requires intact Vps34-dependent VPS function, is comparable in autophagy-deficient low-Beclin 1 expressing MCF7 cells, autophagy-deficient MCF7 cells transfected with Beclin 1DeltaECD, and autophagy-competent MCF7 cells transfected with wild-type Beclin 1. These findings identify an evolutionarily conserved domain of Beclin 1 that is essential for Vps34 interaction, autophagy function, and tumor suppressor function. Furthermore, they suggest a connection between Beclin 1-associated Class III PI3K/Vps34-dependent autophagy, but not VPS, function and the mechanism of Beclin 1 tumor suppressor action in human breast cancer cells.     

Members of the evolutionarily conserved PMT family of protein O-mannosyltransferases form distinct protein complexes among themselves

Protein O-mannosyltransferases (PMTs) initiate the assembly of O-mannosyl glycans, an essential protein modification. Since PMTs are evolutionarily conserved in fungi but are absent in green plants, the PMT family is a putative target for new antifungal drugs, particularly in fighting the threat of phytopathogenic fungi. The PMT family is phylogenetically classified into PMT1, PMT2, and PMT4 subfamilies, which differ in protein substrate specificity. In the model organism Saccharomyces cerevisiae as well as in many other fungi the PMT family is highly redundant, and only the simultaneous deletion of PMT1/PMT2 and PMT4 subfamily members is lethal. In this study we analyzed the molecular organization of PMT family members in S. cerevisiae. We show that members of the PMT1 subfamily (Pmt1p and Pmt5p) interact in pairs with members of the PMT2 subfamily (Pmt2p and Pmt3p) and that Pmt1p-Pmt2p and Pmt5p-Pmt3p complexes represent the predominant forms. Under certain physiological conditions, however, Pmt1p interacts also with Pmt3p, and Pmt5p with Pmt2p, suggesting a compensatory cooperation that guarantees the maintenance of O-mannosylation. Unlike the PMT1/PMT2 subfamily members, the single member of the PMT4 subfamily (Pmt4p) acts as a homomeric complex. Using mutational analyses we demonstrate that the same conserved protein domains underlie both heteromeric and homomeric interactions, and we identify an invariant arginine residue of transmembrane domain two as essential for the formation and/or stability of PMT complexes in general. Our data suggest that protein-protein interactions between the PMT family members offer a point of attack to shut down overall protein O-mannosylation in fungi.     

Interactions between the evolutionarily conserved,actin-related protein,Arp11, actin,and Arp1

The dynein activator dynactin is a multiprotein complex with distinct microtubule- and cargo-binding domains. The cargo-binding domain contains a short, actin-like filament of the actin-related protein Arp1, a second actin-related protein, Arp11, and conventional actin. The length of this filament is invariant in dynactin isolated from multiple species and tissues, suggesting that activities that regulate Arp1 polymerization are important for dynactin assembly. Arp11 is present in a protein complex localized at the pointed end of the Arp1 minifilament, whereas actin capping protein (CapZ) is present at the barbed end. Either might cooperate with conventional actin to cap Arp1. We tested the ability of Arp11 to interact with conventional actin and found it could coassemble. Like Arp1, cytosolic Arp11 is found only in dynactin, suggesting that Arp11 and free cytosolic actin do not interact significantly. Recombinant Arp11 and Arp1 were demonstrated to interact by coprecipitation. We developed an in vivo assay for Arp11-Arp1 interaction based on previous observations that Arp1 forms filamentous assemblies when overexpressed in cultured cells. Arp11 significantly decreases the formation of these organized Arp1 assemblies. Finally, this assay was used to confirm the identity of a putative Arp11 homolog in Drosophila melanogaster.