Hsp70/Hsc70 regulates the effect phosphorylation has on stabilizing ataxin-1

Spinocerebellar ataxia type 1 (SCA1) is an inherited neurodegenerative disorder. The mutation causing SCA1 is an expansion in the polyglutamine tract of the ATXN1 protein. Previous work demonstrated that phosphorylation of mutant ATXN1 at serine 776 (S776), a putative Akt phosphorylation site, is critical for pathogenesis. To examine this pathway further, we utilized a cell-transfection system that allowed the targeting of Akt to either the cytoplasm or the nucleus. In contrast to HeLa cells, we found that Akt targeted to the cytoplasm increased the degradation of ATXN1 in Chinese hamster ovary cells. However, Akt targeted to the cytoplasm failed to destabilize ATXN1 if Hsp70/Hsc70 was present. Thus, Hsp70/Hsc70 can regulate ATXN1 levels in concert with phosphorylation of ATXN1 at S776.     

Apoptin: Specific killer of tumor cells?

In the early 1990s it was discovered that the VP3/Apoptin protein encoded by the Chicken Anemia virus (CAV) possesses an inherent ability to specifically kill cancer cells. Apoptin was found to be located in the cytoplasm of normal cells while in tumor cells it was localized mainly in the nucleus.¹ These differences in the localization pattern were suggested to be the main mechanism by which normal cells show resistance to Apoptin-mediated cell killing. Although the mechanism of action of Apoptin is presently unknown, it seems to function by the induction of programmed cell death (PCD) after translocation from the cytoplasm to the nucleus and arresting the cell cycle at G₂/M, possibly by interfering with the cyclosome.² In addition, cancer specific phosphorylation of Threonine residue 108 has been suggested to be important for Apoptin’s function to kill tumor cells.³ In contrast to the large number of publications reporting that nuclear localization, induction of PCD and phosphorylation of Apoptin is restricted to cancer cells, several recent studies have shown that Apoptin has the ability to migrate to the nucleus and induce PCD in some of the normal cell lines tested. There is evidence that high protein expression levels as well as the cellular growth rate may influence Apoptin’s ability to specifically kill tumor cells. Thus far both in vitro and in vivo studies indicate that Apoptin is a powerful apoptosis inducing protein with a promising prospective utility in cancer therapy. However, here we show that several recent findings contradict some of the earlier results on the tumor specificity of Apoptin, thus creating some controversy in the field. The aim of this article is to review the available data, some published and some unpublished, which either agree or contradict the reported “black and white” tumor cell specificity of Apoptin. Understanding what factors appear to influence its function should help to develop Apoptin into a potent anti-cancer agent.     

Heat Shock Proteins Regulate Activation-induced Proteasomal Degradation of the Mature Phosphorylated Form of Protein Kinase C

Although alterations in stimulus-induced degradation of PKC have been implicated in disease, mechanistic understanding of this process remains limited. Evidence supports the existence of both proteasomal and lysosomal mechanisms of PKC processing. An established pathway involves rate-limiting priming site dephosphorylation of the activated enzyme and proteasomal clearance of the dephosphorylated protein. However, here we show that agonists promote down-regulation of endogenous PKCα with minimal accumulation of a nonphosphorylated species in multiple cell types. Furthermore, proteasome and lysosome inhibitors predominantly protect fully phosphorylated PKCα, pointing to this form as a substrate for degradation. Failure to detect substantive dephosphorylation of activated PKCα was not due to rephosphorylation because inhibition of Hsp70/Hsc70, which is required for re-priming, had only a minor effect on agonist-induced accumulation of nonphosphorylated protein. Thus, PKC degradation can occur in the absence of dephosphorylation. Further analysis revealed novel functions for Hsp70/Hsc70 and Hsp90 in the control of agonist-induced PKCα processing. These chaperones help to maintain phosphorylation of activated PKCα but have opposing effects on degradation of the phosphorylated protein; Hsp90 is protective, whereas Hsp70/Hsc70 activity is required for proteasomal processing of this species. Notably, down-regulation of nonphosphorylated PKCα shows little Hsp70/Hsc70 dependence, arguing that phosphorylated and nonphosphorylated species are differentially targeted for proteasomal degradation. Finally, lysosomal processing of activated PKCα is not regulated by phosphorylation or Hsps. Collectively, these data demonstrate that phosphorylated PKCα is a direct target for agonist-induced proteasomal degradation via an Hsp-regulated mechanism, and highlight the existence of a novel pathway of PKC desensitization in cells.     

Overexpression of Hsc70 promotes proliferation,migration, and invasion of human glioma cells

Migration and invasion are often recognized as the main reasons for the high recurrence and death rates of glioma and limit the efficacy of surgery and other antitumor therapies. In this study, we found over activation of heat shock cognate protein 70 (Hsc70) in human glioma specimens, which was closely related to glioma grade. We investigated whether Hsc70 induced the migration and invasion of glioma cells. Wound healing and transwell migration assay were used to determine the migration and invasion ability of human glioma U251 and U87 cells, in which the expression of Hsc70 was knocked down by small interfering RNA. Western blot analysis was performed to determine the expression of FAK-Src signaling in malignant glioma cells. The results showed that Hsc70 deficiency significantly retarded migration and invasion and reduced the phosphorylation of FAK, Src, and Pyk2 in U251 and U87 cells. Overall, our results indicate that the migration and invasion capacity of human brain glioma cells is at least partly induced by Hsc70-dependent activation of FAK-Src signaling.     

Identification of Hsc70 as an influenza virus matrix protein (M1) binding factor involved in the virus life cycle

Influenza virus matrix protein 1 (M1) has been shown to play a crucial role in the virus replication, assembly and budding. We identified heat shock cognate protein 70 (Hsc70) as a M1 binding protein by immunoprecipitation and MALDI-TOF MS. The C terminal domain of M1 interacts with Hsc70. We found that Hsc70 does not correlate with the transport of M1 to the nucleus, however, it does inhibit the nuclear export of M1 and NP, thus resulting in the inhibition of viral production. This is the first demonstration that Hsc70 is directly associated with M1 and therefore is required for viral production.     

Interaction with Ppil3 leads to the cytoplasmic localization of Apoptin in tumor cells

Apoptin, a small protein encoded by chicken anemia virus (CAV), induces cell death specifically in cancer cells. In normal cells, Apoptin remains in the cytoplasm; whereas in cancerous cells, it migrates into the nucleus and kills the cell. Cellular localization appears to be crucial. Through a yeast two-hybrid screen, we identified human Peptidyl-prolyl isomerase-like 3 (Ppil3) as one of the Apoptin-associated proteins. Ppil3 could bind Apoptin directly, and held Apoptin in cytoplasm even in tumor cells. We then demonstrated that the nuclearcytoplasmic distribution of Apoptin is related to the expression level of intrinsic Ppil3. Moreover, extrinsic modifying of Ppil3 levels also resulted in nuclearcytoplasmic shuffling of Apoptin. The Apoptin P109A mutant, located between the putative nuclear localization and export signals, could significantly impair the function of Ppil3. Our results suggest a new direction for the localization mechanism study of Apoptin in cells.     

Hispolon promotes MDM2 downregulation through chaperone-mediated autophagy

Amplification and overexpression of murine double minute (MDM2) has been observed in several human cancers. Some chemotherapeutic agents cause MDM2 ubiquitination and degradation in a proteasome-dependent system. In addition to the proteasome system, chaperone-mediated autophagy (CMA) is a lysosomal pathway for selective misfolded protein degradation. Molecular chaperone heat shock cognate 70 protein (Hsc70) recognizes the misfolded proteins, which are then delivered to lysosome-associated membrane protein type 2A (LAMP2A) for lysosomal degradation. Our previous study reported that hispolon was able to induce cell apoptosis and downregulate MDM2 expression. In this study, our results showed that the proteasome inhibitor, MG132, could not inhibit hispolon-induced MDM2 downregulation. In contrast, both inhibition of lysosomes with NH₄Cl and inhibition of LAMP2A using siRNA partially attenuated hispolon-induced MDM2 downregulation. To determine whether Hsc70 recognizes MDM2 on amino acids 135-141, SMP14 antibody was used to compete with Hsc70 for interaction with MDM2. After Hsc70 knockdown, SMP14 antibody immunoprecipitated increased MDM2. We also found that hispolon induced increased association of Hsp70, Hsc70, Hsp90 and LAMP2A with MDM2. This association was inhibited in cells pretreated with geldanamycin (GA), an Hsp90 inhibitor. GA also attenuated hispolon-induced MDM2 downregulation. Meanwhile, inhibition of Hsc70 using siRNA attenuated hispolon-induced MDM2 downregulation. Our study provides the first example of the ability of hispolon to mediate MDM2 downregulation in lysosomes through the CMA pathway.     

双组分核定位信号介导Apoptin定位于肿瘤细胞核

Apoptin是一种来源于鸡贫血病毒的小蛋白,在肿瘤细胞中定位于细胞核,而在正常细胞中主要分布于细胞质。根据预测,Apoptin分子中有2段序列(NLS1和NLS2)可能是单组分核定位信号。通过基因突变和缺失构建了Apoptin各种不同的核定位信号突变体和磷酸化突变体,利用增强型绿色荧光蛋白(EGFP)作标签,观察了其在肿瘤细胞中亚细胞定位的变化。结果表明,NLS1和NLS2单独均不是有效的单组分核定位信号。Apoptin的核定位信号是由NLS1和NLS2这2段序列共同组成的双组分核定位信号,缺少任何一段序列都会严重影响Apoptin在肿瘤细胞中的核定位。其中,NLS2对于Apoptin的核定位起主要作用。Apoptin的获得型磷酸化突变体并不能转位到正常细胞的细胞核中,而其磷酸化负突变体仍定位于肿瘤细胞的细胞核。另外,丝氨酸／苏氨酸蛋白激酶抑制剂H7也不影响Apoptin在肿瘤细胞中的核定位。很可能,Apoptin的磷酸化并不参与调控其核定位信号的功能。     

The viral death effector Apoptin reveals tumor-specific processes

Several natural proteins, including the cellular protein TRAIL and the viral proteins E4orf4 and Apoptin, have been found to exert a tumor-preferential apoptotic activity. These molecules are potential anti-cancer agents with direct clinical applications. Also very intriguing is their possible utility as sensors of the tumorigenic phenotype. Here, we focus on Apoptin, discussing recent research that has greatly increased our understanding of its tumor-specific processes. Apoptin, which kills tumor cells in a p53- and Bcl-2-independent, caspase-dependent manner, is biologically active as a highly stable, multimeric complex consisting of 30 to 40 monomers that form distinct superstructures upon binding cooperatively to DNA. In tumor cells, Apoptin is imported into the nucleus prior to the induction of apoptosis; this contrasts with the situation in primary or low-passage normal cell cultures where nuclear translocation of Apoptin is rare and inefficient. Apoptin contains two autonomous death-inducing domains, both of which exhibit a strong correlation between nuclear localization and killing activity. Nevertheless, forced nuclear localization of Apoptin in normal cells is insufficient to allow induction of apoptosis, indicating that another activation step particular to the tumor or transformed state is required. Indeed, a kinase activity present in cancer cells but negligible in normal cells was recently found to regulate the activity of Apoptin by phosphorylation. However, in normal cells, Apoptin can be activated by transient transforming signals conferred by ectopically expressed SV40 LT antigen, which rapidly induces Apoptins phosphorylation, nuclear accumulation and the ability to induce apoptosis. The region on LT responsible for conferring this effect has been mapped to the N-terminal J domain. In normal cells that do not receive such signals, Apoptin becomes aggregated, epitope-shielded and is eventually degraded in the cytoplasm. Finally, Apoptin interacts with various partners of the human proteome including DEDAF, Nmi and Hippi, which may help to regulate either Apoptins activation or execution processes. Taken together, these recent advances illustrate that elucidating the mechanism of Apoptin-induced apoptosis can lead to the discovery of novel tumor-specific pathways that may be exploitable as anti-cancer drug targets.     

DnaJ/Hsc70 chaperone complexes control the extracellular release of neurodegenerative‐associated proteins

It is now known that proteins associated with neurodegenerative disease can spread throughout the brain in a prionlike manner. However, the mechanisms regulating the trans‐synaptic spread propagation, including the neuronal release of these proteins, remain unknown. The interaction of neurodegenerative disease‐associated proteins with the molecular chaperone Hsc70 is well known, and we hypothesized that much like disaggregation, refolding, degradation, and even normal function, Hsc70 may dictate the extracellular fate of these proteins. Here, we show that several proteins, including TDP‐43, α‐synuclein, and the microtubule‐associated protein tau, can be driven out of the cell by an Hsc70 co‐chaperone, DnaJC5. In fact, DnaJC5 overexpression induced tau release in cells, neurons, and brain tissue, but only when activity of the chaperone Hsc70 was intact and when tau was able to associate with this chaperone. Moreover, release of tau from neurons was reduced in mice lacking the DnaJC5 gene and when the complement of DnaJs in the cell was altered. These results demonstrate that the dynamics of DnaJ/Hsc70 complexes are critically involved in the release of neurodegenerative disease proteins.     

Identification of novel nuclear export and nuclear localization-related signals in human heat shock cognate protein 70

Heat shock cognate protein 70 (Hsc70) serves nuclear transport of several proteins as a molecular chaperone. We have recently identified a novel variant of human Hsc70, heat shock cognate protein 54 (Hsc54), that lacks amino acid residues 464-616 in the protein binding and variable domains of Hsc70. In the present study, we examined nucleocytoplasmic localization of Hsc70 and Hsc54 by using green fluorescent protein (GFP) fusions. GFP-Hsc70 is localized in both the cytoplasm and the nucleus at 37 degrees C and accumulated into the nucleolus/nucleus after heat shock, whereas GFP-Hsc54 always remained exclusively in the cytoplasm under these conditions. Mutation studies indicated that 20 amino acid residues of nuclear localization-related signals, which are missing in Hsc54 but are retained in Hsc70, are required for proper nuclear localization of Hsc70. We further found that Hsc54 contains a functional leucine-rich nuclear export signal (NES, (394)LDVTPLSL(401)) which is differently situated from the previously proposed NES in Saccharomyces cerevisiae Ssb1p. The cytoplasmic localization of Hsc54 was impaired by a mutation in NES as well as by a nuclear export inhibitor, leptomycin B, suggesting that Hsc54 is actively exported from the nucleus to the cytoplasm through a CRM1-dependent mechanism. In contrast, the nucleocytoplasmic localization of Hsc70 was not affected by the same mutation of NES or leptomycin B. These results suggest that the nuclear localization-related signal could functionally mask NES leading to prolonged retention of Hsc70 in the nucleus. An additional mechanism for unmasking the NES may regulate nucleocytoplasmic trafficking of Hsc70.     

IL-10 synergistically enhances GM-CSF-induced CCR1 expression in myelomonocytic cells

CC chemokine receptor 1 (CCR1) has been implicated in inflammation. The present study examined the signaling mechanisms that mediate GM-CSF/IL-10-induced synergistic CCR1 protein expression in monocytic U937 cells. GM-CSF alone markedly increased both the mRNA and protein expression of CCR1. IL-10 augmented GM-CSF-induced CCR1 protein expression with no effect on mRNA expression. PD098059 and U0126 (two MEK inhibitors), and LY294002 (a PI3K inhibitor) inhibited GM-CSF/IL-10-induced CCR1 gene and protein expression. PD098059, U0126, and LY294002 also attenuated chemotaxis of GM-CSF/IL-10-primed U937 cells in response to MIP-1alpha. Immunoblotting studies show that GM-CSF alone induced ERK2 phosphorylation; whereas, IL-10 alone induced p70(S6k) phosphorylation in U937 cells. Neither cytokine when used alone induced PKB/Akt phosphorylation. Combined GM-CSF/IL-10 treatment of U937 cells induced phosphorylation of ERK2, p70(S6k), and PKB/Akt. PD098059 and U0126 completely abrogated ERK2 phosphorylation; whereas, LY294002 completely blocked PKB/Akt and p70(S6k) phosphorylation. Our findings indicate that IL-10 may potentiate GM-CSF-induced CCR1 protein expression in U937 cells via activation of PKB/Akt and p70(S6k).     

70-kDa heat shock protein expression in cultured rat astrocytes after hypoxia: regulatory effect of almitrine

Induction of heat shock proteins (Hsps), especially the 70-kDa family, is well observed in nervous tissues in response to various stressful conditions. By using rat astrocytes in primary culture, the expression of the inducible (Hsp70) and the constitutive (Hsc70) 70-kDa Hsps immunoreactivity of cells exposed to hypoxic conditions has been investigated. We observed that exposure of astroglial cells to an hypoxic-normoxic sequence induces a significant decrease of Hsc70 immunoreactivity. The presence of the heat inducible stress protein Hsp70 is never observed in hypoxic cells not in control. Hsc 70 lowering is associated with ultrastructural alterations characterized by mitochondria swelling, formation of vacuoles and accumulation of dense material in the cell cytoplasm. The effects of addition of almitrine to the culture medium before and during hypoxia on Hsps immunoreactivity have been examined. The presence of the drug prevents the decrease of Hsc 70 immunoreactivity induced by hypoxia. Furthermore, some ultrastructural improvement is observed in astroglial cells treated with almitrine suggesting some protecting role of Hsc70 on cell damage induced by hypoxia.     

Hsp70 localizes differently from chaperone Hsc70 in mouse mesoangioblasts under physiological growth conditions

Mouse A6 mesoangioblasts express Hsp70 even in the absence of cellular stress. Its expression and its intracellular localization were investigated under normal growth conditions and under hyperthermic stress. Immunofluorescence assays indicated that without any stress a fraction of Hsp70 co-localized with actin microfilaments, in the cell cortex and in the contractile ring of dividing cells, while the Hsc70 chaperone did not. Hsp70 immunoprecipitation assays confirmed that a portion of Hsp70 binds actin. Immunoblot assays showed that both proteins were present in the nucleus. After heat treatment Hsp70 and actin continued to co-localize in the leading edge of A6 cells but not on microfilaments. Although Hsp70 and Hsc70 are both basally synthesized they showed different cellular distribution, suggesting an Hsp70 different activity respect to the Hsc70 chaperone. Moreover, we found Hsp70 in the culture medium as it has been described in other cell types.     

Autophosphorylation of the pea mitochondrial heat-shock protein homolog

Highly purified mitochondria isolated from 14-day-old pea (Pisum sativum L., cv Little Marvel) seedlings contain a homolog of the 70,000 molecular weight heat-shock protein. The amount of this heat-shock cognate (Hsc70) was not reduced by limited proteolysis of intact mitochondria or by preparation of mitoplasts, indicating that the protein is located within the matrix compartment. Pea mitochondrial Hsc70 binds to immobilized ATP and reacts on western blots with anti-tomato Hsc70 antiserum. When a mitochondrial matrix fraction was incubated with [γ-³²P]ATP, there was phosphorylation of Hsc70. The extent of phosphorylation was increased by including calcium chloride in the reactions. Phospho amino acid analysis of purified mitochondrial Hsc70, phosphorylated in the calcium-stimulated reaction, revealed only phosphothreonine. Pea mitochondrial Hsc70, purified by a combination of ATP-agarose affinity chromatography and gel permeation chromatography, was labeled when incubated with ATP plus calcium, suggesting autophosphorylation rather than phosphorylation by an associated kinase. In analogy to mammalian cells and yeast, it is likely that mitochondrial Hsc70 acts as a molecular chaperone, and it is possible that phosphorylation plays a role in chaperone function.     

Constitutive heat shock protein 70 interacts with α-enolase and protects cardiomyocytes against oxidative stress

Abstract

Constitutive heat shock protein 70 (Hsc70) is a molecular chaperone that has been shown to protect cardiomyocytes against oxidative stress. However, the molecular mechanism responsible for this protection remains uncertain. To understand the mechanism associated with the myocardial protective role of Hsc70, we have embarked upon a systematic search for Hsc70-interacting proteins. Using adenosine diphosphate (ADP) affinity chromatography and mass spectrometry, we have identified α-enolase, a rate-limiting enzyme in glycolysis, as a novel Hsc70-interacting protein in the myocardium of both sham and myocardial ischemia-reperfused Sprague–Dawley rat hearts. This interaction was confirmed by co-immunoprecipitation (IP) assays in the myocardial tissues and H9c2 cardiomyocytes and protein overlay assay (POA). It was further shown that Hsc70-overexpression alleviated the H₂O₂-induced decrease of α-enolase activity and cell damage, and Hsc70 deficiency aggravated the decrease of α-enolase activity and cell damage in H₂O₂ treated H9c2 cells. Our research suggests that the protective effect of Hsc70 on the cardiomyocytes against oxidative stress is partly associated with its interaction with α-enolase.     

Hamartin-Hsp70 Interaction Is Necessary for Akt-Dependent Tuberin Phosphorylation during Heat Shock

Hamartin and tuberin interact directly to regulate cell growth negatively. In this study, far-western blotting revealed that hamartin binds directly Heat shock protein 70 (Hsp70), even in the absence of tuberin. While the hamartin-tuberin complex acts as a sensor for a variety of types of stress, it is unclear how the complex is regulated under stress conditions. We found that the hamartin-Hsp70 interaction is stabilized during heat shock. On the other hand, tuberin underwent degradation through phosphorylation in an Akt-dependent manner. Furthermore, we found that when Hsp70 expression was inhibited by N-formyl-3,4-methylenedioxy-benzylidene-γ-butyrolactam (KNK437), Akt phosphorylation on site Ser308 diminished and tuberin was not phosphorylated at Thr1462 during heat shock. We conclude that both hamartin and Hsp70 increase in response to heat shock, whereas tuberin is phosphorylated and thereafter degraded via the PI3K/Akt pathway. Through this pathway, hamartin-Hsp70 plays a crucial role as a scaffolding protein that transfers the Akt signal to tuberin.     

CHIP functions an E3 ubiquitin ligase of Runx1

Runx1 is a key factor in the generation and maintenance of hematopoietic stem cells. Improper expression and mutations in Runx1 are frequently implicated in human leukemia. Here, we report that CHIP, the carboxyl terminus of Hsc70-interacting protein, also named Stub1, physically interacts with Runx1 through the TPR and Charged domains in the nucleus. Over-expression of CHIP directly induced Runx1 ubiquitination and degradation through the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway. Interestingly, we found that CHIP-mediated degradation of Runx1 is independent of the molecular chaperone Hsp70/90. Taken together, we propose that CHIP serves as an E3 ubiquitin ligase that regulates Runx1 protein stability via an ubiquitination and degradation mechanism that is independent of Hsp70/90.     

Nuclear translocation of stress protein Hsc70 during S phase in rat C6 glioma cells

The expression and the nuclear translocation of the constitutive heat shock protein 70 (Hsc70) were determined during the cell cycle in synchronized rat astrocytomic C6 glioma cells. Cells were first shifted to the GO by serum starvation. Twelve hours after a subsequent growth stimulation by transfer to 20% newborn calf serum, about 50% of the cells entered S phase. Western blot analysis with different monoclonal antibodies showed that only the constitutively expressed and moderately stress-activated Hsc70 is induced during serum stimulation. Maximal cellular Hsc70 content (170% of the control) was observed in early to mid S phase followed by a drastic decline while cells pass through G2/M (20% of the control). Hsp70, the major heat-inducible heat shock protein in C6 cells, is not detected in either asynchronously proliferating, serum-starved or in serum-stimulated C6 cells. Analysis of the nuclear and cytoplasmic protein fractions showed a significant increase of Hsc70 translocation into the nucleus during early S phase. These results indicate a role for Hsc70 but not for Hsp70 in the process of S phase entry and/or progression in C6 cells under physiological conditions.