Probing the binding sites of resveratrol,genistein, and curcumin with milk β-lactoglobulin

We determined the binding sites of curcumin (cur), resveratrol (res), and genistein (gen) with milk β-lactoglobulin (β-LG) at physiological conditions. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, circular dichroism, and fluorescence spectroscopic methods as well as molecular modeling were used to determine the binding of polyphenol–protein complexes. Structural analysis showed that polyphenols bind β-LG via both hydrophilic and hydrophobic contacts with overall binding constants of K_{curcumin–β-LG}?=?4.4 (±?.4)?×?10⁴ M^?1, K_{resveratrol–β-LG}?=?4.2 (±?.2)?×?10⁴ M^?1, and K_{genistein–β-LG}?=?1.2 (±?.2)?×?10⁴?M^?1. The number of polyphenol molecules bound per protein (n) was 1 (cur), 1.1 (res), and 1 (gen). Molecular modeling showed the participation of several amino acid residues in polyphenol–protein complexation with the free binding energy of ?12.67 (curcumin–β-LG), ?12.60 (resveratrol–β-LG), and ?10.68?kcal/mol (genistein–β-LG). The order of binding was cur?>?res?>?gen. Alteration of the protein conformation was observed in the presence of polyphenol with a major reduction of β-sheet and an increase in turn structure, causing a partial protein structural destabilization. β-LG might act as a carrier to transport polyphenol in vitro.     

Antioxidant enzyme activities, malondialdehyde, and total phenolic content of PEG-induced hyperhydric leaves in sugar beet tissue culture

Hyperhydricity is a physiological abnormality that frequently affects shoots that are vegetatively propagated in vitro. In this study, sugar beet (Beta vulgaris L. cv. Felicita) shoot tip explants were cultured on Murashige and Skoog medium supplemented with different concentrations of polyethylene glycol (PEG) 6000. We observed that higher concentrations of PEG 6000 and longer exposure (up to 4 wk) resulted in increasing levels of hyperhydration as well as browning and/or blackening of tissues in culture. A comparison of hyperhydric shoots with controls on the 28th day showed a marked increase in the content of water, phenolics, and malondialdehyde (MDA), which was positively correlated with an increase in the accumulation of PEG 6000. Selected antioxidant enzyme activities, including superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), ascorbate peroxidase (APX), guaiacol peroxidase (POX), and polyphenol oxidase (PPO) also increased in hyperhydric shoots, especially at lower concentrations of PEG 6000. Regression analysis indicated that strong linear relationships exist between SOD–APX (R ²?=?0.932), SOD–CAT (R ²?=?0.753), SOD–total phenolic content (R ²?=?0.966), APX–PPO (R ²?=?0.842), APX–total phenolic content (R ²?=?0.904), POX–CAT (R ²?=?0.751), and CAT–total phenolic content (R ²?=?0.806). Despite the correlation between different antioxidant enzymes and between the antioxidant enzymes and antioxidant compounds, was not able to prevent ROS damage in hyperhydric shoots. The negative correlation between SOD–MDA, POX–MDA, CAT–MDA, and MDA–total phenolics also indicated an increase in antioxidant enzyme activities, yet the increase in these antioxidant compound contents did not prevent lipid peroxidation of in vitro propagated beet shoots.     

Purification and biochemical characterization of angiotensin I-converting enzyme (ACE) from ostrich lung: The effect of 2,2,2-trifluoroethanol on ACE conformation and activity

This work reports the purification and biochemical characterization of angiotensin I-converting enzyme (ACE) from ostrich (Struthio camelus) lung. The molecular weight of the purified enzyme was approximately evaluated to be 200 kDa and the maximum enzyme activity was observed at pH 7.5. The enzyme activity was increased by detergents of Triton X-100 (0.01%), cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) (0.1 and 1 mM) and sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) (0.1 mM), while decreased by Triton X-100 (1% and 10%) and SDS (1 mM and 10 mM). The secondary and tertiary structure and activity of ACE in the absence and presence of trifluoroethanol (TFE) were investigated using circular dichroism, fluorescence quenching and UV–visible spectroscopy, respectively. Our results revealed that TFE stabilizes ACE at low concentrations, while acts as a denaturant at higher concentration (20%). The K_m, K_cat and K_cat/K_m values of ostrich ACE towards FAPGG were 0.8 × 10^?4 M, 59,240 min^?1 and 74 × 10⁷ min^?1 M^?1, respectively. The values of IC₅₀ and K_i for captopril were determined to be 36.5 nM and 16.6 nM, respectively. In conclusion, ostrich lung ACE is a new enzyme which could be employed as a candidate for studying ACE structure and its natural or synthetic inhibitors.     

Free radical formation and activity of antioxidant enzymes in lupin roots exposed to lead

Inhibition of root growth and modification of root morphology are the most sensitive responses of Lupinus luteus cv. Ventus L. to lead ions - Pb(NO₃)₂. Using electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR), we found that at the lead concentration of 150 mg.L^–1, the level of free radicals remained at control level, whereas at the higher, sublethal concentration of 350 mg.L^–1, they markedly increased. The EPR signal with the g-value at the maximum absorption of 2.0053 implied that the paramagnetic radical is derived from a quinone. The response of antioxidant enzymes, such as superoxide dismutase (SOD, EC 1.15.1.1), catalase (CAT, EC 1.11.1.6), peroxidase (POX, EC 1.11.1.7) and ascorbate peroxidase (APOX, EC 1.11.1.11), to exogenously applied lead ions was also examined. Enzyme activity was estimated as a function of time and concentration. Native polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis followed by specific staining revealed an increase in the activity of SOD, CAT, POX and APOX coinciding with the time of cultivation. A lead-dependent increase in activities of SOD and POX from root tip extracts was observed, whereas CAT and APOX activities decreased at the higher lead concentrations. These results suggest that at higher lead concentrations, the formation of both free radicals and reactive oxygen species is beyond the capacity of the antioxidant system, which in turn may contribute to the reduced root growth.     

Human thyroid peroxidase: Inhibition of the iodide ion and 3,3′,5,5′-tetramethylbenzidine oxidation by phenolic antioxidants

A comparative kinetic study on the poly(gallic acid disulfide) (poly(DSGA)) inhibition of the iodide ion oxidation and on the 2-hydroxy-3,5-di-tert-butyl-N-phenylaniline (butaminophene) inhibition of 3,3′,5,5′-tetramethylbenzidine (TMB) oxidation involving human thyroid peroxidase (hTPO) and horseradish peroxidase (HRP) was performed. The inhibition processes were characterized with the inhibition constantsK _i and stoichiometric inhibition coefficientsf, indicating the number of radical particles perishing on one inhibitor molecule. In the case of poly(DSGA), theK _i values for the I⁻ oxidation were 0.60 and 0.04 μM, and the coefficientsf were 13.6 and 16.5 for hTPO and HRP, respectively, which evidences the regeneration and high effectiveness of the polymeric inhibitor. In the case of butaminophene, theK _i values for TMB oxidation were 38 and 46 μM for hTPO and HRP, respectively. The coefficientsf were 1.33 and 1.47, respectively, to reveal that butaminophene does not regenerate. The inhibition mechanisms for I⁻ and TMB oxidation involving the two peroxidases are discussed.     

Kinetic and anion inhibition studies of a β-carbonic anhydrase (FbiCA 1) from the C4 plant Flaveria bidentis

Several β-carbonic anhydrases (CAs, EC 4.2.1.1) are present in all land plants examined thus far. Here we report the first detailed biochemical characterization of one such isoform, FbiCA 1, from the C₄ plant Flaveria bidentis, which was cloned, purified and characterized as recombinant protein. FbiCA 1 has an interesting CO₂ hydrase catalytic activity (k_cat of 1.2 × 10⁵ and k_cat/K_m of 7.5 × 10⁶ M^?1 × s^?1) and was moderately inhibited by most simple/complex inorganic anions. Potent FbiCA 1 inhibitors were also detected, such as trithiocarbonate, diethyldithiocarbamate, sulfamide, sulfamic acid, phenylboronic acid and phenylarsonic acid (K_Is in the range of 4–60 μM). Such inhibitors may be used as tools to better understand the role of various β-CA isoforms in photosynthesis.     

An amperometric biosensor based on horseradish peroxidase immobilized onto maize tassel-multi-walled carbon nanotubes modified glassy carbon electrode for determination of heavy metal ions in aqueous solution

A biosensor for trace metal ions based on horseradish peroxidase (HRP) immobilized on maize tassel-multiwalled carbon nanotube (MT-MWCNT) through electrostatic interactions is described herein. The biosensor was characterized using Fourier transform infrared (FTIR), UV–vis spectrometry, voltammetric and amperometric methods. The FTIR and UV–vis results inferred that HRP was not denatured during its immobilization on MT-MWCNT composite. The biosensing principle was based on the determination of the cathodic responses of the immobilized HRP to H₂O₂, before and after incubation in trace metal standard solutions. Under optimum conditions, the inhibition rates of trace metals were proportional to their concentrations in the range of 0.092–0.55 mg L⁻¹, 0.068–2 mg L⁻¹ for Pb²⁺ and Cu²⁺ respectively. The limits of detection were 2.5 μg L⁻¹ for Pb²⁺ and 4.2 μg L⁻¹ for Cu²⁺. Representative Dixon and Cornish-Bowden plots were used to deduce the mode of inhibition induced by the trace metal ions. The inhibition was reversible and mixed for both metal ions. Furthermore, the biosensor showed good stability, selectivity, repeatability and reproducibility.     

Quantification of hydrogen peroxide and glucose using 3-methyl-2-benzothiazolinonehydrazone hydrochloride with 10,11-dihydro-5H-benz(b,f)azepine as chromogenic probe

A sensitive, selective, and rapid enzymatic method is proposed for the quantification of hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) using 3-methyl-2-benzothiazolinonehydrazone hydrochloride (MBTH) and 10,11-dihydro-5H-benz(b,f)azepine (DBZ) as chromogenic cosubstrates catalyzed by horseradish peroxidase (HRP) enzyme. MBTH traps free radical released during oxidation of H₂O₂ by HRP and gets oxidized to electrophilic cation, which couples with DBZ to give an intense blue-colored product with maximum absorbance at 620 nm. The linear response for H₂O₂ is found between 5 × 10⁻⁶ and 45 × 10⁻⁶ mol L⁻¹ at pH 4.0 and a temperature of 25 °C. Catalytic efficiency and catalytic power of the commercial peroxidase were found to be 0.415 × 10⁶ M⁻¹ min⁻¹ and 9.81 × 10⁻⁴ min⁻¹, respectively. The catalytic constant (k_cat) and specificity constant (k_cat/K_m) at saturated concentration of the cosubstrates were 163.2 min⁻¹ and 4.156 × 10⁶ L mol⁻¹ min⁻¹, respectively. This method can be incorporated into biochemical analysis where H₂O₂ undergoes catalytic oxidation by oxidase. Its applicability in the biological samples was tested for glucose quantification in human serum.     

Kinetic approach of aflatoxin B1-acetylcholinesterase interaction: a tool for developing surface plasmon resonance biosensors

This work presents a kinetic approach of the interaction between acetylcholinesterase (AChE) from electric eel and aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) or its protein conjugate (e.g., AFB1–HRP [horseradish peroxidase]) in order to develop a simple and sensitive detection method of these compounds. The dissociation constant K_d of the AChE/AFB1–HRP interaction (0.4 μM) obtained with the surface plasmon resonance (SPR) technique is very close to the inhibition constant reported in amperometric assay (K_i = 0.35 μM), proving that the conjugation of AFB1 to a carrier protein does not significantly influence the affinity of AFB1 for AChE. Thus, the AChE/AFB1–HRP couple can be used as mimic system for the binding of AChE to other AFB1–protein adducts and further used for developing biosensors for AFB1 bound to plasma proteins. The immobilization protocol was designed to minimize the nonspecific adsorption on the self-assembled monolayer (SAM) functionalized surface of the SPR chip without an additional hydrophilic linker, whereas the interaction protocol was designed to mark out the possible occurrence of mass transport limitation (MTL) effects. The detection limits (LODs) were 0.008 μM for AFB1–HRP (2.5 ng ml^?1 AFB1) and 0.94 ng ml^?1 for AFB1 itself, which is lower than recently reported values in spectrophotometric and amperometric assays.     

Application of immobilized horseradish peroxidase onto modified acrylonitrile copolymer membrane in removing of phenol from water

A non-modified and modified with NaOH and ethylenediamine ultrafiltration membranes prepared from AN copolymer have been used as carriers for the immobilization of horseradish peroxidase (HRP) enzyme. The amount of bound protein onto the membranes and the activity of the immobilized enzyme have been investigated as well as the pH and thermal optimum, and the thermal stability of the free and immobilized HRP. The experiments have proved that the modified membrane is a better support for the immobilization of HRP enzyme. The latter has shown a greater thermal stability than the free enzyme.A possible application has been studied for reducing phenol concentration in water solutions through oxidation of phenol by hydrogen peroxide, in the presence of free and immobilized HRP enzyme on modified AN copolymer membranes. A higher degree of the phenol oxidation has been observed in the presence of the immobilized enzyme. A total removal of phenol has been achieved in the presence of immobilized HRP at concentration of the hydrogen peroxide 0.5 mmol L^?1 and concentration of the phenol in the model solutions within the interval 5–40 mg L^?1. A high degree of phenol oxidation (95.4%) has been achieved in phenol solution with 100 mg L^?1 concentration in the presence of hydrogen peroxide and immobilized HRP, which demonstrates the promising opportunity of using the enzyme for bioremediation of waste waters, containing phenol.The immobilized HRP has shown good operational stability. Deactivation of the immobilized enzyme to 50% of the initial activity has been observed after the 20th day of the enzyme operation.     

Analysis of peroxidase activity of rice (Oryza sativa) recombinant hemoglobin 1: Implications for in vivo function of hexacoordinate non-symbiotic hemoglobins in plants

In plants, it has been proposed that hexacoordinate (class 1) non-symbiotic Hbs (nsHb-1) function in vivo as peroxidases. However, little is known about peroxidase activity of nsHb-1. We evaluated the peroxidase activity of rice recombinant Hb1 (a nsHb-1) by using the guaiacol/H₂O₂ system at pH 6.0 and compared it to that from horseradish peroxidase (HRP). Results showed that the affinity of rice Hb1 for H₂O₂ was 86-times lower than that of HRP (K_m = 23.3 and 0.27 mM, respectively) and that the catalytic efficiency of rice Hb1 for the oxidation of guaiacol using H₂O₂ as electron donor was 2838-times lower than that of HRP (k_cat/K_m = 15.8 and 44 833 mM⁻¹ min⁻¹, respectively). Also, results from this work showed that rice Hb1 is not chemically modified and binds CO after incubation with high H₂O₂ concentration, and that it poorly protects recombinant Escherichia coli from H₂O₂ stress. These observations indicate that rice Hb1 inefficiently scavenges H₂O₂ as compared to a typical plant peroxidase, thus indicating that non-symbiotic Hbs are unlikely to function as peroxidases in planta.     

Production of precursors for anti-Alzheimer drugs: Asymmetric bioreduction in a packed-bed bioreactor using immobilized D. carota cells

(S)-1-Phenylethanol derivatives, which are the precursors of many pharmacological products, have also been used as anti-Alzheimer drugs. Bioreduction experiments were performed in a batch and packed-bed bioreactor. Then, the kinetics constants were determined by examining the reaction kinetics in the batch system with free and immobilized carrot cells. Also, the effective diffusion coefficient (D_e) of acetophenone in calcium alginate-immobilized carrot cells was investigated. Kinetics constants for free cells, which are intrinsic values, are reaction rate V_max?=?0.052?mmol?L^?1?min^?1, and constants of the Michaelis–Menten K_M?=?2.31?mmol?L^?1. Kinetics constants for immobilized cells, which are considered apparent values, are V_{max, app}?=?0.0407?mmol?L^?1 min^?1, K_{M, app}?=?3.0472?mmol?L^?1 for 2?mm bead diameter, and V_{max, app}?=?0.0453?mmol?L^?1 min^?1, K_{M, app}?=?4.9383?mmol?L^?1 for 3?mm bead diameter. Average value of effective diffusion coefficient of acetophenone in immobilized beads was determined as 1.97?×?10^?6?cm²?s^?1. Using immobilized carrot cells in an up-flow packed-bed reactor, continuous production of (S)-1-phenylethanol through asymmetric bioreduction of acetophenone was performed. The effects of the residence time and concentrations of substrate were investigated at pH 7.6 and 33°C. Enantiomerically pure (S)-1-phenylethanol (ee?>?99%) was produced with 75% conversion at 4-hr residence time.     

Cooxidation of phenol and 4-aminoantipyrin, catalyzed by polymers and copolymers of horseradish root peroxidase and Penicillium funiculosum 46.1 glucose oxidase

Polymers and copolymers of horseradish root peroxidase (HRP) and Penicillium funiculosum 46.1 glucose oxidase (GO) have been synthesized and their catalytic properties have been characterized (free and immobilized forms of each enzyme were studied). The cooxidation reaction of phenol and 4-aminoantipyrin (4-AAP), performed in an aqueous medium in the presence of equimolar amounts of GO and HRP, was characterized by effective K _M and k _cat of 0.58 mM and 20.9 s^?1 (for phenol), and 14.6 mM and 18.4 s^?1 (glucose), respectively. The catalytic efficiency of polymerization products (PPs) of GO (GO-PPs) depended on the extent of their aggregation. The combinations GO + HRP-PP and HRP + GO-PP, as well as the copolymer HRP*-GO-PP, proved promising as reagents for enzyme-based analytical systems. When adsorbed on aluminum hydroxide gels, GO-PPs exhibited higher catalytic activity than the non-polymeric enzyme. Maximum retention of GO-PP activity on the inorganic carrier was observed in the case of GO-PP copolymers with an activated HRP. Polymerization of HRP in the presence of a zinc hydroxide gel, paralleled by HRP-PP immobilization onto the gel, increased both the activity of the enzyme and its operational stability.     

YhjA - An Escherichia coli trihemic enzyme with quinol peroxidase activity

The trihemic bacterial cytochrome c peroxidase from Escherichia coli, YhjA, is a membrane-anchored protein with a C-terminal domain homologous to the classical bacterial peroxidases and an additional N-terminal (NT) heme binding domain. Recombinant YhjA is a 50?kDa monomer in solution with three c-type hemes covalently bound. Here is reported the first biochemical and spectroscopic characterization of YhjA and of the NT domain demonstrating that NT heme is His63/Met125 coordinated. The reduction potentials of P (active site), NT and E hemes were established to be ?170?mV, +133?mV and +210?mV, respectively, at pH?7.5. YhjA has quinol peroxidase activity in vitro with optimum activity at pH?7.0 and millimolar range K_M values using hydroquinone and menadiol (a menaquinol analogue) as electron donors (K_M?=?0.6?±?0.2 and 1.8?±?0.5?mM H₂O₂, respectively), with similar turnover numbers (k_cat?=?19?±?2 and 13?±?2?s^?1, respectively). YhjA does not require reductive activation for maximum activity, in opposition to classical bacterial peroxidases, as P heme is always high-spin 6-coordinated with a water-derived molecule as distal axial ligand but shares the need for the presence of calcium ions in the kinetic assays. Formation of a ferryl Fe(IV)?=?O species was observed upon incubation of fully oxidized YhjA with H₂O₂. The data reported improve our understanding of the biochemical properties and catalytic mechanism of YhjA, a three-heme peroxidase that uses the quinol pool to defend the cells against hydrogen peroxide during transient exposure to oxygenated environments.     

Effects of perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids on the uptake of sulfobromophthalein via organic anion transporting polypeptides in human intestinal Caco-2 cells

We performed a detailed investigation of the uptake of sulfobromophthalein (BSP) from the apical membrane of Caco-2 cells, which is a substrate for organic anion transporting polypeptides (OATPs), and calculated the kinetic parameters of BSP uptake as follows: K_m = 13.9 ± 1.3 μM, V_max = 1.15 ± 0.07 nmol (mg protein)^?1 (5 min)^?1, and k_d = 38.2 ± 0.53 μL (mg protein)^?1 (5 min)^?1. Coincubation with medium-chain (C7–C11) perfluoroalkyl carboxylic acids (PFCAs), such as perfluoroheptanoic acid (PFHpA, C7), perfluorooctanoic acid (PFOA, C8), perfluorononanoic acid (PFNA, C9), perfluorodecanoic acid (PFDA, C10) and perfluoroundecanoic acid (PFUnDA, C11), significantly decreased BSP uptake by 27–55%, while coincubation with short- (C3–C6) and long-chain (C12–C14) PFCAs decreased the uptake only slightly. Dixon plotting suggested that PFOA, PFNA and PFDA competitively inhibited the BSP uptake with inhibition constant (K_i) values of 62.2 ± 1.3 μM, 35.3 ± 0.1 μM and 43.2 ± 0.3 μM, respectively. PFCAs with medium-chains could be substrates for OATPs, probably OATP2B1, which is the most abundantly expressed OATP isoform in Caco-2 cells.     

Melatonin influence on in vitro callus induction and phenolic compound production in sweet basil (Ocimum basilicum L.)

The aim of the present study was to evaluate melatonin effects on the callus induction and phenolic compound production of Ocimum basilicum L. (sweet basil). Calluses, derived from leaf explants, were grown on Murashige and Skoog (MS) medium supplemented with 0, 100, or 200 μM melatonin, and subsequently extracted for determination of their phenolic contents. Melatonin decreased the callus induction in both concentrations. Based on the phytochemical analysis, the highest total phenolic acid contents (784.6 μg g⁻¹ and 335.2 μg g⁻¹, respectively) were recorded in calluses grown in 100 and 200 μM melatonin-supplemented medium, compared with the calluses induced with MS alone (192.0 μg g⁻¹). Among the five phenolic acids confirmed in the callus samples, rosmarinic acid was the major constituent. The amount of rosmarinic acid increased significantly in callus grown on 100 μM melatonin medium by nearly 5-fold (754.2 μg g⁻¹), compared with the control group callus. Major volatiles in basil calluses were represented by 3-methylbutanal, benzaldehyde, 1,8-cineole, 2-nonenal, eugenol, and methyl eugenol, and these were in the ranges of 4 to 14%, 24 to 50%, 2 to 3%, 0 to 0.55%, and 2 to 17% (in relative percentages), respectively. The qualitative and quantitative analyses of these substances found in calluses formed on melatonin-supplemented or melatonin-free medium were evaluated separately.

     

Kinetic and thermodynamic behaviour of wall-bound peroxidase from wheat leaves infected with stripe rust

We have identified two types of peroxidases (POX), one ionically and one covalently bound to the particulate fraction, in stripe rust-infected and -uninfected wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) leaves. The cell walls contained a high level of POX, of which 73–76% was extractable by 1% NaCl and 24–26% by 5 mM EDTA in infected and non-infected leaves of HD 2329. The NaCl-released POX constituted the predominant fraction. Both NaCl- and EDTA-extracted POX exhibited maximum activity at pH 5.0 and had a K _m (enzyme–substrate affinity measure) value of 1.61–1.70 and 1.64–1.67 mM, respectively, with o-dianisidine as the substrate. The V _max (maximum catalytic rate) in the two extractions ranged between 7.06–7.45 and 6.65–7.82 μmol min⁻¹ g⁻¹ fresh weight. A temperature optimum of 50°C was observed for both the NaCl- and EDTA-released fractions. The two POX fractions showed a differential response to metal ions, suggesting their distinctive nature. Sodium azide inhibited POX activity markedly, which suggested the presence of heme as a prosthetic group. Inhibition of wall-bound POX by iodine and the regeneration of activity by mercaptoethanol suggested the involvement of cysteine in the active site of the enzyme. These two forms showed greater differences in terms of thermodynamic properties, such as the energy of activation (E _a) and enthalpy change (ΔH), while entropy (ΔS) and free energy changes were similar. The results further show that pathogen infection of the leaves of this susceptible wheat cultivar induces an increase in the activity and kinetics of POX, which may be critical in the response of the plant cell to infection.     

Antioxidative Defense Potential to Salinity in the Euhalophyte Salicornia brachiata

The antioxidative defense mechanism to salinity was assessed by monitoring the activities of some antioxidative enzymes and levels of antioxidants in an obligate halophyte, Salicornia brachiata, subjected to varying levels of NaCl (0, 200, 400, and 600 mM) under hydroponic culture. In the shoots of S. brachiata, salt treatment preferentially enhanced the activities of ascorbate peroxidase (APX), guaiacol peroxidase (POX), glutathione reductase (GR), and superoxide dismutase (SOD), whereas it induced the decrease of catalase (CAT) activity. Similarly, salinity caused an increase in total glutathione content (GSH + GSSG) and a decrease in total ascorbate content. Growth of S. brachiata was optimum at 200 mM NaCl and decreased with further increase in salinity. Salinity caused an increase in Na⁺ content and a decrease in K⁺ content of shoots. Proline levels did not change at low (0-200 mM NaCl) or moderate (400 mM NaCl) salinities, whereas a significant increase in proline level was observed at high salinity (600 mM NaCl). Accumulation of Na⁺ may have a certain role in osmotic homeostasis under low and moderate salinities in S. brachiata. Parameters of oxidative stress such as malondialdehyde (MDA), a product of lipid peroxidation, and H₂O₂ concentrations decreased at low salinity (200 mM NaCl) and increased at moderate (400 mM NaCl) and high salinities (600 mM NaCl). As a whole, our results suggest that the capacity to limit ionic and oxidative damage by the elevated levels of certain antioxidative enzymes and antioxidant molecules is important for salt tolerance of S. brachiata.     

Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors. Inhibition of the β-class enzyme from the pathogenic yeast Candida glabrata with anions

A β-carbonic anhydrase (CA, EC 4.2.1.1), the protein encoded by the NCE103 gene of Candida glabrata which also present in Candida albicans and Saccharomyces cerevisiae, was cloned, purified, characterized kinetically and investigated for its inhibition by a series simple, inorganic anions such as halogenides, pseudohalogenides, bicarbonate, carbonate, nitrate, nitrite, hydrogen sulfide, bisulfite, perchlorate, sulfate and some isosteric species. The enzyme showed significant CO₂ hydrase activity, with a k_cat of 3.8 × 10⁵ s^?1 and k_cat/K_M of 4.8 × 10⁷ M^?1 s^?1. The Cà glabrata CA (CgCA) was moderately inhibited by metal poisons (cyanide, azide, cyanate, thiocyanate, K_Is of 0.60–1.12 mM) but strongly inhibited by bicarbonate, nitrate, nitrite and phenylarsonic acid (K_Is of 86–98 μM). The other anions investigated showed inhibition constants in the low millimolar range, with the exception of bromide and iodide (K_Is of 27–42 mM).     

Carbonic anhydrase inhibitors: Inhibition of the β-class enzyme from the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae with sulfonamides and sulfamates

The protein encoded by the Nce103 gene of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, a β-carbonic anhydrase (CA, EC 4.2.1.1) designated as scCA, has been cloned, purified, characterized kinetically and investigated for its inhibition with a series of sulfonamides and one sulfamate. The enzyme showed high CO₂ hydrase activity, with a k_cat of 9.4 × 10⁵ s^?1, and k_cat/K_M of 9.8 × 10⁷ M^?1 s^?1. Simple benzenesulfonamides substituted in 2-, 4- and 3,4-positions of the benzene ring with amino, alkyl, halogeno and hydroxyalkyl moieties were weak scCA inhibitors with K_Is in the range of 0.976–18.45 μM. Better inhibition (K_Is in the range of 154–654 nM) was observed for benzenesulfonamides incorporating aminoalkyl/carboxyalkyl moieties or halogenosulfanilamides; benzene-1,3-disulfonamides; simple heterocyclic sulfonamides and sulfanilyl-sulfonamides. The clinically used sulfonamides/sulfamate (acetazolamide, ethoxzolamide, methazolamide, dorzolamide, topiramate, celecoxib, etc.) generally showed effective scCA inhibitory activity, with K_Is in the range of 82.6–133 nM. The best inhibitor (K_I of 15.1 nM) was 4-(2-amino-pyrimidin-4-yl)-benzenesulfonamide. These inhibitors may be useful to better understand the physiological role of β-CAs in yeast and some pathogenic fungi which encode orthologues of the yeast enzyme and eventually for designing novel antifungal therapies.