Estimation of transmembrane pH gradients from phase equilibria of spin-labeled amines.

Spin-labeled secondary amines have been used to measure transmembrane proton gradients in sonicated liposomes. The electron paramagnetic resonance spectra of these probes show changes in the ratio of membrane associated to free aqueous probe as a function of transmembrane pH gradient. As the pH gradient is increased, inside acidic, the amount of membrane associated probe increases. The results are accounted for by a simple thermodynamic theory.     

Fluorescence lifetime characterization of novel low-pH probes.

The structures and functions of the cellular acidic compartments are strongly dependent on the pH gradients across vesicular membranes. Measurement and imaging of the vesicular pH require fluorophores with appropriate pK(a) values. In this report, we characterized the pH-dependent lifetime responses of a family of acidotropic probes, LysoSensors, to evaluate their usefulness to low-pH lifetime imaging. LysoSensors are cell-permeable weak bases that selectively accumulate in acidic vesicles after being protonated. They have higher quantum yields at lower pH ranges to allow visualization of the lysosomes. For LysoSensors DND-167, DND-189, and DND-153, raising the buffer pH increased the quenching effects of their basic side chains and substantially reduced their steady-state fluorescence and lifetimes. The apparent pK(a) values determined from their lifetime responses were shifted to near neutral values because of the dominant intensity contribution from their protonated species. One unique property of LysoSensor DND-189 is its nonmonotonic lifetime responses of the maxima occurring between pH 4 and 5. LysoSensor DND-192 did not show significant lifetime changes over a wide pH range. LysoSensor DND-160, which was the only excitation and emission ratiometric probe, showed significant pH-dependent lifetime changes as well as its spectral shifts. Its apparent pK(a) values determined from the lifetime responses were comparable to the lysosomal pH because of its bright basic form. Because of the pH-dependent absorption spectra, the apparent pK(a) values could be manipulated between 3 and 5 by changing the excitation and/or emission wavelengths. These results indicate that LysoSensor DND-160 is a promising probe for lifetime imaging to determine lysosomal pH.     

Changes in intracellular acidic compartments in sea urchin eggs after activation

Acridine orange (AO) was used as a vital probe for looking at acidic intracellular compartments in sea urchin eggs. This weak base is concentrated by acidic compartments, shifting its fluorescence from green to red due to the formation of dye aggregates. Fertilization or parthenogenetic activation with ionophore A23187 resulted in the appearance of orange fluorescent granules of sizes ranging from 1 to 2 microns at the cortical region of the egg. In one species of sea urchin (Lytechinus pictus), these granules migrate inward before cell division and associate with the forming mitotic apparatus. Treatments that discharge the transmembrane pH gradient (NH4Cl, nigericin, monensin, and acidic external pH) eliminate the orange fluorescence, indicating they are acidic compartments. Spectrofluorimetric measurements showed a decrease in monomer fluorescence accompanying egg activation which is reversible by similar treatments as seen with the fluorescence microscopic observations. Stratified eggs which were subsequently fertilized had acidic granules concentrated at the centripetal pole. This allowed the electron microscopic identification of the granules and showed they are present in the unfertilized egg, although not able to concentrate the AO. Activation of eggs in the absence of Na+ prevented the cytoplasmic alkalinization and also inhibited the appearance of acidic granules. The results indicate that the internal pH rises after egg activation triggers the acidification of these granules. Their possible functions, as in intracellular pH regulation, are discussed.     

pH-Sensitive Polymeric Micelle-Based pH Probe for Detecting and Imaging Acidic Biological Environments

To overcome the limitations of monomeric pH probes for acidic tumor environments, this study designed a mixed micelle pH probe composed of polyethylene glycol (PEG)-b-poly(l-histidine) (PHis) and PEG-b-poly(l-lactic acid) (PLLA), which is well-known as an effective antitumor drug carrier. Unlike monomeric histidine and PHis derivatives, the mixed micelles can be structurally destabilized by changes in pH, leading to a better pH sensing system in nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) techniques. The acidic pH-induced transformation of the mixed micelles allowed pH detection and pH mapping of 0.2-0.3 pH unit differences by pH-induced "on/off"-like sensing of NMR and magnetic resonance spectroscopy. The micellar pH probes sensed pH differences in nonbiological phosphate buffer and biological buffers such as cell culture medium and rat whole blood. In addition, the pH-sensing ability of the mixed micelles was not compromised by loaded doxorubicin. In conclusion, PHis-based micelles could have potential as a tool to simultaneously treat and map the pH of solid tumors in vivo.     

Endocytosis and intracellular fate of liposomes using pyranine as a probe

Lipid vesicles (liposomes) containing pH-sensitive fluorophores were used as probes for the study of liposome entry and intracellular fate. Pyranine [8-hydroxy-1,3,6-pyrenetrisulfonate (HPTS)] was entrapped in the liposome aqueous core during preparation to provide a means of detecting internalization into living cells. HPTS is highly water soluble and shows a strong pH-dependent shift in its fluorescence excitation spectrum. Fluorescence emission (FEM) is slightly pH dependent with excitation (lambda EX) at 350-415 nm but highly pH dependent with lambda EX at 450 nm. Liposomes bearing a net negative charge bound rapidly to CV-1 cells and underwent endocytosis. One hour after liposome addition, high FEM with lambda EX at 413 nm and low FEM with lambda EX at 450 nm suggest that most cell-associated liposomes had been internalized and resided at a mean pH of approximately 6.6. Collapse of cellular H+ gradients with NH4Cl or monensin treatment rapidly and reversibly increased FEM with lambda EX at 450 nm. Direct examination by fluorescence microscopy corroborates the fluorometric data on internalization; over time, FEM remained high with lambda EX at 350-405 nm but decreased with lambda EX at 450-490 nm, showing that all lipid vesicles were internalized within 40 min at 37 degrees C. Acidification of intracellular liposomes increased over 3 h, reaching a minimum value of approximately pH 5.5. HPTS persisted within acidic cellular vesicles for 2-3 days, and cytoplasmic dye was observed infrequently, suggesting that liposome fusion with cellular membranes seldom occurs. Material delivered to the endocytic pathway via lipid vesicles labeled an assortment of intracellular organelles of varying motility and morphology, including dynamic tubular structures whose lumen is acidic.     

Dual probe fluorescence monitoring of intracellular free calcium during ischemia in mouse heart by using continuous compensation for pH dependence of the dissociation constant of Fura-2, and the interference of myoglobin

Mitochondrial damage is the main source of cellular injury upon ischemia–reperfusion, and calcium loading has been implicated in this phenomenon. The use of optical probes for calcium monitoring of the intact heart is hampered by internal filter effects of intracellular hemoproteins, endogenous fluorescence, and their sensitivity to pH.We describe here a method for measurement of intracellular free calcium in isolated myoglobin-deficient perfused mouse hearts under conditions of large intracellular pH fluctuations by simultaneous fluorescence monitoring of the calcium-probe Fura-2 and the pH probe BCECF through dual wavelength excitation of both probes. In myoglobin-containing mouse heart endogenous chromophores interfere with Fura-2 fluorometry.It is shown that a paradoxical decrease in Fura-2 fluorescence occurs during ischemia in isolated mouse hearts. Simultaneous recording of BCECF fluorescence (calibrated against pH measurement with phosphorus NMR) and data reduction based on continual recalculation of the apparent dissociation constant of the calcium-probe complex revealed that a marked increase in intracellular free calcium occurs, and that the Fura-2 fluorescence decrease was caused by an increase in dissociation constant due to intracellular acidification. Intracellular free calcium rose almost linearly during a 20-min period of ischemia and returned to basal values rapidly upon the commencement of perfusion.     

Dual probe fluorescence monitoring of intracellular free calcium during ischemia in mouse heart by using continuous compensation for pH dependence of the dissociation constant of Fura-2, and the interference of myoglobin

Mitochondrial damage is the main source of cellular injury upon ischemia-reperfusion, and calcium loading has been implicated in this phenomenon. The use of optical probes for calcium monitoring of the intact heart is hampered by internal filter effects of intracellular hemoproteins, endogenous fluorescence, and their sensitivity to pH. We describe here a method for measurement of intracellular free calcium in isolated myoglobin-deficient perfused mouse hearts under conditions of large intracellular pH fluctuations by simultaneous fluorescence monitoring of the calcium-probe Fura-2 and the pH probe BCECF through dual wavelength excitation of both probes. In myoglobin-containing mouse heart endogenous chromophores interfere with Fura-2 fluorometry. It is shown that a paradoxical decrease in Fura-2 fluorescence occurs during ischemia in isolated mouse hearts. Simultaneous recording of BCECF fluorescence (calibrated against pH measurement with phosphorus NMR) and data reduction based on continual recalculation of the apparent dissociation constant of the calcium-probe complex revealed that a marked increase in intracellular free calcium occurs, and that the Fura-2 fluorescence decrease was caused by an increase in dissociation constant due to intracellular acidification. Intracellular free calcium rose almost linearly during a 20-min period of ischemia and returned to basal values rapidly upon the commencement of perfusion.     

Simultaneous pH Measurement in Endocytic and Cytosolic Compartments in Living Cells using Confocal Microscopy

Intracellular pH is tightly regulated and differences in pH between the cytoplasm and organelles have been reported¹. Regulation of cellular pH is crucial for homeostatic control of physiological processes that include: protein, DNA and RNA synthesis, vesicular trafficking, cell growth and cell division. Alterations in cellular pH homeostasis can lead to detrimental functional changes and promote progression of various diseases². Various methods are available for measuring intracellular pH but very few of these allow simultaneous measurement of pH in the cytoplasm and in organelles. Here, we describe in detail a rapid and accurate method for the simultaneous measurement of cytoplasmic and organellar pH by using confocal microscopy on living cells³. This goal is achieved with the use of two pH-sensing ratiometric dyes that possess selective cellular compartment partitioning. For instance, SNARF-1 is compartmentalized inside the cytoplasm whereas HPTS is compartmentalized inside endosomal/lysosomal organelles. Although HPTS is commonly used as a cytoplasmic pH indicator, this dye can specifically label vesicles along the endosomal-lysosomal pathway after being taken up by pinocytosis^3,4. Using these pH-sensing probes, it is possible to simultaneously measure pH within the endocytic and cytoplasmic compartments. The optimal excitation wavelength of HPTS varies depending on the pH while for SNARF-1, it is the optimal emission wavelength that varies. Following loading with SNARF-1 and HPTS, cells are cultured in different pH-calibrated solutions to construct a pH standard curve for each probe. Cell imaging by confocal microscopy allows elimination of artifacts and background noise. Because of the spectral properties of HPTS, this probe is better suited for measurement of the mildly acidic endosomal compartment or to demonstrate alkalinization of the endosomal/lysosomal organelles. This method simplifies data analysis, improves accuracy of pH measurements and can be used to address fundamental questions related to pH modulation during cell responses to external challenges.     

Characterisation of proton fluxes across the cytoplasmic membrane of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae.

We have tested the efficacy of fluorescent probes for the measurement of intracellular pH in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Of the compounds tested (fluorescein, carboxyseminaphthorhodafluor-1 (C.SNARF-1) and 2',7'bis(carboxyethyl)-5(6')-carboxyfluorescein), C.SNARF-1 was found to be the most useful indicator of internal pH. Fluorescence microscopy showed that in Saccharomyces cerevisiae strain DAUL1, C.SNARF-1 and fluorescein had a heterogeneous distribution, with dye throughout the cytoplasm and concentration of the dye to an area close to the cell membrane. This region was also labeled by quinacrine, which is known to accumulate in acidic regions of the cell. Saccharomyces cerevisiae BJ4932, which carries a defect in vacuolar acidification, did not show the same degree of dye concentration, suggesting that the site of C.SNARF-1 and fluorescein localisation in DAUL1 is the acidic vacuole. Changes in intracellular pH could be monitored by measuring changes in the fluorescence intensity of C.SNARF-1. The addition of glucose caused an initial, rapid decrease in fluorescence intensity, indicating a rise in cellular pH. This was followed by slow acidification. Fluorescence intensity changes were similar in all strains studied, suggesting that the localisation of dye to acidic regions does not affect the measurement of intracellular pH in DAUL1. The changes in intracellular pH on the addition of glucose correlated well with glucose-induced changes in external pH. Preincubation of cells in the presence of the plasma membrane H(+)-ATPase inhibitor diethylstilbestrol reduced extracellular acidification and intracellular alkalinisation on the addition of glucose. Both amiloride and 5-(N-ethyl-N-isopropyl)amiloride also inhibited glucose-induced proton fluxes. Phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate had no effect on the activity of the plasma membrane ATPase.     

A new fluorescent pH probe for imaging lysosomes in living cells

A new rhodamine B-based pH fluorescent probe has been synthesized and characterized. The probe responds to acidic pH with short response time, high selectivity and sensitivity, and exhibits a more than 20-fold increase in fluorescence intensity within the pH range of 7.5–4.1 with the pK_a value of 5.72, which is valuable to study acidic organelles in living cells. Also, it has been successfully applied to HeLa cells, for its low cytotoxicity, brilliant photostability, good membrane permeability and no ‘alkalizing effect’ on lysosomes. The results demonstrate that this probe is a lysosome-specific probe, which can selectively stain lysosomes and monitor lysosomal pH changes in living cells.     

Dihydrofluorescein diacetate is superior for detecting intracellular oxidants: comparison with 2',7'-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate, 5(and 6)-carboxy-2',7'-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate, and dihydrorhodamine 123.

To detect intracellular oxidant formation during reoxygenation of anoxic endothelium, the oxidant-sensing fluorescent probes, 2',7'-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate, dihydrorhodamine 123, or 5(and 6)-carboxy-2',7'-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate were added to human umbilical vein endothelial cells during reoxygenation. None of these fluorescent probes were able to differentiate the controls from the reoxygenated cells in the confocal microscope. However, dihydrofluorescein diacetate demonstrated fluorescence of linear structures, consistent with mitochondria, in reoxygenated endothelium. This work tests the hypothesis that dihydrofluorescein diacetate is a better fluorescent probe for detecting intracellular oxidants because it is more reactive toward specific oxidizing species. To investigate this, dihydrofluorescein diacetate was exposed to various oxidizing species (hydrogen peroxide, superoxide [KO2], peroxynitrite, nitric oxide, horseradish peroxidase, ferric iron, xanthine oxidase, cytochrome c, and lipoxygenase) and compared with the three other popular probes. Though oxidized dihydrofluorescein has higher molar fluorescence, comparison of the reactions of dihydrofluorescein with these other three probes in a cell-free system indicates that dihydrofluorescein is sometimes less fluorescent than the other probes. In addition, we find that the reactivity of all of the probes is very complex. Based on the results reported here, it is no longer appropriate to think of these probes as detecting a specific oxidizing species in cells, such as H2O2, but rather as detectors of a broad range of oxidizing reactions that may be increased during intracellular oxidant stress. Cell-loading studies indicate that dihydrofluorescein achieves higher intracellular concentrations than the second brightest intracellular probe, 2',7'-dichlorodihydrofluorescein. This fact and its higher molar fluorescence may account for the superior brightness of dihydrofluorescein diacetate. Dihydrofluorescein diacetate may be a superior fluorescent probe for many cell-based studies.     

Detection and enumeration of methanotrophs in acidic Sphagnum peat by 16S rRNA fluorescence in situ hybridization, including the use of newly developed oligonucleotide probes for Methylocella palustris

Two 16S rRNA-targeted oligonucleotide probes, Mcell-1026 and Mcell-181, were developed for specific detection of the acidophilic methanotroph Methylocella palustris using fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH). The fluorescence signal of probe Mcell-181 was enhanced by its combined application with the oligonucleotide helper probe H158. Mcell-1026 and Mcell-181, as well as 16S rRNA oligonucleotide probes with reported group specificity for either type I methanotrophs (probes M-84 and M-705) or the Methylosinus/Methylocystis group of type II methanotrophs (probes MA-221 and M-450), were used in FISH to determine the abundance of distinct methanotroph groups in a Sphagnum peat sample of pH 4.2. M. palustris was enumerated at greater than 10(6) cells per g of peat (wet weight), while the detectable population size of type I methanotrophs was three orders of magnitude below the population level of M. palustris. The cell counts with probe MA-221 suggested that only 10(4) type II methanotrophs per g of peat (wet weight) were present, while the use of probe M-450 revealed more than 10(6) type II methanotroph cells per g of the same samples. This discrepancy was due to the fact that probe M-450 targets almost all currently known strains of Methylosinus and Methylocystis, whereas probe MA-221, originally described as group specific, does not detect a large proportion of Methylocystis strains. The total number of methanotrophic bacteria detected by FISH was 3.0 (+/-0.2) x 10(6) cells per g (wet weight) of peat. This was about 0.8% of the total bacterial cell number. Thus, our study clearly suggests that M. palustris and a defined population of Methylocystis spp. were the predominant methanotrophs detectable by FISH in an acidic Sphagnum peat bog.     

Fusion of influenza virus in an intracellular acidic compartment measured by fluorescence dequenching

The fusion of influenza virus with cultured cells has been investigated. The virus was labelled with the fluorescent probe octadecyl rhodamine B and fusion was monitored as fluorescence dequenching due to dilution of the probe from the viral into a cellular target membrane. Fusion with the plasma membrane does not occur, unless the extracellular pH is temporarily lowered. At neutral pH fusion occurs only after a lag phase of 10-15 min, the time required for virus internalization, and the reaction is inhibited by NH4Cl, indicating that it takes place in an intracellular acidic compartment, most likely the endosome. This suggests that influenza virus infects cells via the endocytic pathway.     

Synthesis and 31P NMR characterization of new low toxic highly sensitive pH probes designed for in vivo acidic pH studies

With the aim to provide sensitive 31P NMR probes of intra- and extracellular pH gradients that may reach cellular acidic compartments in biological systems, new alpha-aminophosphonates were designed to meet basic requirements such as a low pK(a)s and a great chemical difference (Deltadelta(ab)) between the limiting 31P NMR chemical shifts in acidic (delta(a)) and basic (delta(b)) media. A series of six phosphorylated pyrrolidines and linear aminophosphonates were synthesized using aminophosphorylation reactions and were screened for cytotoxicity on cultured Müller cells. Among the compounds not being toxic under these conditions, three molecules were selected since they displayed the best in vitro (in several phosphate buffers and in a cytosol-like solution) properties as 31P NMR acidic pH markers, that is 3, 5 and 9, having the pK(a) values of 3.63, 5.89 and 5.66, respectively. The Deltadelta(ab) values of these pH markers were at least 3 times larger than that of standard 31P NMR probes, with a low sensitivity to ionic strength changes. From these data, it was proposed that 3, 5 and 9 could be used as reporting probes of subtle proton movements in acidic compartments, an area that still remains poorly investigated using non invasive 31P NMR methods.     

Near infrared fluorescence-based bacteriophage particles for ratiometric pH imaging

Fluorogenic imaging agents emitting in the near-infrared are becoming important research tools for disease investigation in vivo. Often pathophysiological states such as cancer and cystic fibrosis are associated with disruptions in acid/base homeostasis. The development of optical sensors for pH imaging would facilitate the investigation of these diseased conditions. In this report, the design and synthesis of a ratiometric near-infrared emitting probe for pH quantification is detailed. The pH-responsive probe is prepared by covalent attachment of pH-sensitive and pH-insensitive fluorophores to a bacteriophage particle scaffold. The pH-responsive cyanine dye, HCyC-646, used to construct the probe, has a fluorogenic pKa of 6.2, which is optimized for visualization of acidic pH often associated with tumor hypoxia and other diseased states. Incorporation of pH-insensitive reference dyes enables the ratiometric determination of pH independent of the probe concentration. With the pH-responsive construct, measurement of intracellular pH and accurate determination of pH through optically diffuse biological tissue is demonstrated.     

Quin-2 and fura-2 measure calcium differently

Several fluorescent probes have been used in the past to monitor and to measure intracellular calcium and calcium fluxes. The most widely used of these probes are those developed by Tsien. We address the markedly different values obtained when comparing Quin-2 (the original probe) with Fura-2 (a second-generation probe). In most cases the values for intracellular calcium have been considered to be interchangeable for the different probes. Using several different hematopoietic cell lines we show that in no case do the two probes yield equivalent values.     

Comparison of spectrum-shifting intracellular pH probes 5'(and 6')-carboxy-10-dimethylamino-3-hydroxyspiro[7H-benzo[c]xanthene-7, 1'(3'H)-isobenzofuran]-3'-one and 2',7'-biscarboxyethyl-5(and 6)-carboxyfluorescein.

The dyes carboxy-SNARF-1 and BCECF are fluorescent probes of intracellular pH that exhibit changes in spectral shape upon proton binding which allow one to use measurements of fluorescence at two or more wavelengths in order to measure pH without artifacts associated with variability in dye loading, etc. In evaluating these dyes for this study, whole spectra, rather than measurements at two wavelengths, were analyzed. For BCECF, the effects of the intracellular milieu were minimal: both the pH-sensitive excitation spectrum and the pKa agreed closely with values found in extracellular solution. In contrast, both the spectra and the pKa for the emission spectrum-shifting carboxy-SNARF-1 showed significant differences between intracellular and extracellular dye. As a result, extremely misleading values for intracellular pH will be obtained if one attempts to use extracellular dye to calibrate intracellular carboxy-SNARF-1 measurements. Multiple origins were found for the discrepancy: (i) the intracellular dye was found to be significantly quenched, with the deprotonated form being more strongly quenched than the protonated form; and (ii) the pKa for the equilibrium with intracellular hydrogen ions was shifted by +0.2 pH units. These effects were readily reversed by disruption of the cell, but were not due to sequestering of dye in an acidic cell compartment.     

Intracellular distribution of acridine derivatives in platelets and their suitability for cytoplasmic pH measurements

The site and mechanism of accumulation of acridine derivatives into platelets and their isolated organelles were investigated. In addition, their suitability as indicators of cytoplasmic pH was analysed. Direct microscopic observation showed that quinacrine and 9-aminoacridine are concentrated inside organelles in platelets. Using fractionation studies, the acridine derivatives were found to accumulate particularly in dense and α-granules. Uptake into these organelles is driven by a pH differential across their membrane (acidic inside). Because of their cellular distribution, acridine derivatives were found to be poor indicators of cytoplasmic pH. In contrast, a poorly permeant dicarboxylated fluorescein derivative, generated in situ by cytosolic enzymes, is shown to be a more reliable probe of intracellular pH. The results are compared with previous reports of the use of 9-aminoacridine as a cytoplasmic pH probe in platelets and of quinacrine as a selective dense-granule marker.     

aprABC: a Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex-specific locus that modulates pH-driven adaptation to the macrophage phagosome

Following phagocytosis by macrophages, Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) senses the intracellular environment and remodels its gene expression for growth in the phagosome. We have identified an acid and phagosome regulated (aprABC) locus that is unique to the Mtb complex and whose gene expression is induced during growth in acidic environments in vitro and in macrophages. Using the aprA promoter, we generated a strain that exhibits high levels of inducible fluorescence in response to growth in acidic medium in vitro and in macrophages. aprABC expression is dependent on the two-component regulator phoPR, linking phoPR signalling to pH sensing. Deletion of the aprABC locus causes defects in gene expression that impact aggregation, intracellular growth, and the relative levels of storage and cell wall lipids. We propose a model where phoPR senses the acidic pH of the phagosome and induces aprABC expression to fine-tune processes unique for intracellular adaptation of Mtb complex bacteria.     

Innocuousness and intracellular distribution of PKH67: A fluorescent probe for cell proliferation assessment

PKH dyes were initially developed by Horan et al. to provide appropriate probes for in vitro and in vivo cell tracking. It has been reported for many cell types that PKH bind irreversibly to the cell membrane without significantly affecting cell growth. Thus, these probes provide an opportunity for long-term cell monitoring and the identification of cells of interest among a heterogeneous cell population. An important feature is that upon cell division, the probe is partitioned equally between each daughter cell, making it possible to quantify tell fluorescence by flow cytometry. In this situation. the flow cytometric study of PKH67 characteristics shows that this probe does not affect the main cell-functions such as viability or proliferation. Moreover, the intracellular distribution of PKH67 is demonstrated by following its kinetics of internalization by confocal microscopy. These results present PKH67 as a probe suitable for dynamic analysis of cell proliferation as well as the study of intracellular localization and membrane recycling mechanisms.