X-ray crystal structure of rivoglitazone bound to PPARγ and PPAR subtype selectivity of TZDs

Thiazolidinedione (TZD) compounds targeting the nuclear receptor peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma (PPARγ) demonstrate unique benefits for the treatment of insulin resistance and type II diabetes. TZDs include rosiglitazone, pioglitazone and rivoglitazone, with the latter being the most potent. The TZDs are only marginally selective for the therapeutic target PPARγ as they also activate PPARα and PPARδ homologues to varying degrees, causing off-target effects. While crystal structures for TZD compounds in complex with PPARγ are available, minimal structural information is available for TZDs bound to PPARα and PPARδ. This paucity of structural information has hampered the determination of precise structural mechanisms involved in TZD selectivity between PPARs. To help address these questions molecular dynamic simulations were performed of rosiglitazone, pioglitazone and rivoglitazone in complex with PPARα, PPARδ, and PPARγ in order to better understand the mechanisms of PPAR selectivity. The simulations revealed that TZD interactions with residues Tyr314 and Phe318 of PPARα and residues Phe291 and Thr253 of PPARδ as well as the omega loop, are key determinants of TZD receptor selectivity. Notably, in this study, we solve the first X-ray crystal structure of rivoglitazone bound to any PPAR. Rivoglitazone forms a unique hydrogen bond network with the residues of the PPARγ co-activator binding surface (known as AF2) and makes more extensive contacts with helix 3 and the β-sheet as compared to model TZD compounds such as rosiglitazone.     

过氧化物酶体增殖物激活受体α的研究进展

过氧化物酶体增殖物激活受体（Peroxisome proliferator activated receptors,PPARs）作为核受体超家族的一员,其作用广泛,可调节脂肪细胞因子表达、抑制炎症因子、改善胰岛素抵抗等。PPARs有三种亚型,分别是：PPARα、PPARβ／δ和PPARγ。其中PPARα是PPARs最主要的亚型,主要分布在肝脏中。PPARα由不饱和脂肪酸或贝特类降脂药物等配体活化后形成异二聚体,调控靶基因的表达,发挥生物学功能。PPARα参与调节肝脏脂质吸收、脂肪酸氧化、酮体生成、胆固醇代谢等脂代谢过程,以及糖代谢、炎症反应和细胞增殖等,与脂肪性肝病、肝脏炎症反应、乙肝病毒复制和肝癌等肝脏疾病密切相关。本文对PPARα的结构、作用机制、生物学功能及其与肝脏疾病的关系进行综述。PPARα作为肝脏疾病一个新的治疗靶点,阐明其与肝脏疾病发生机制之间的关系,有助于为肝脏疾病的治疗提供新的途径。     

PPARs and angiogenesis

The PPAR (peroxisome-proliferator-activated receptor) family consists of three ligand-activated nuclear receptors: PPARα, PPARβ/δ and PPARγ. These PPARs have important roles in the regulation of glucose and fatty acid metabolism, cell differentiation and immune function, but were also found to be expressed in endothelial cells in the late 1990s. The early endothelial focus of PPARs was PPARγ, the molecular target for the insulin-sensitizing thiazolidinedione/glitazone class of drugs. Activation of PPARγ was shown to inhibit angiogenesis in vitro and in models of retinopathy and cancer, whereas more recent data point to a critical role in the development of the vasculature in the placenta. Similarly, PPARα, the molecular target for the fibrate class of drugs, also has anti-angiogenic properties in experimental models. In contrast, unlike PPARα or PPARγ, activation of PPARβ/δ induces angiogenesis, in vitro and in vivo, and has been suggested to be a critical component of the angiogenic switch in pancreatic cancer. Moreover, PPARβ/δ is an exercise mimetic and appears to contribute to the angiogenic remodelling of cardiac and skeletal muscle induced by exercise. This evidence and the emerging mechanisms by which PPARs act in endothelial cells are discussed in more detail.     

Discovery of potent and selective PPARα/δ dual antagonists and initial biological studies

We previously published on the design and synthesis of novel, potent and selective PPARα antagonists suitable for either i.p. or oral in vivo administration for the potential treatment of cancer. Described herein is SAR for a subsequent program, where we set out to identify selective and potent PPARα/δ dual antagonist molecules. Emerging literature indicates that both PPARα and PPARδ antagonism may be helpful in curbing the proliferation of certain types of cancer. This dual antagonism could also be used to study PPARs in other settings. After testing for selective and dual potency, off-target counter screening, metabolic stability, oral bioavailability and associated toxicity, compound 11, the first reported PPARα/δ dual antagonist was chosen for more advanced preclinical evaluation.     

Molecular modelling,synthesis, and biological evaluations of a 3,5-disubstituted isoxazole fatty acid analogue as a PPARα-selective agonist

The peroxisome proliferator activated receptors (PPARs) are important drug targets in treatment of metabolic and inflammatory disorders. Fibrates, acting as PPARα agonists, have been widely used lipid-lowering agents for decades. However, the currently available PPARα targeting agents show low subtype-specificity and consequently a search for more potent agonists have emerged. In this study, previously isolated oxohexadecenoic acids from the marine algae Chaetoceros karianus were used to design a PPARα-specific analogue. Herein we report the design, synthesis, molecular modelling studies and biological evaluations of the novel 3,5-disubstituted isoxazole analogue 6-(5-heptyl-1,2-oxazol-3-yl)hexanoic acid (1), named ADAM. ADAM shows a clear receptor preference and significant dose-dependent activation of PPARα (EC₅₀ = 47 µM) through its ligand-binding domain (LBD). Moreover, ADAM induces expression of important PPARα target genes, such as CPT1A, in the Huh7 cell line and primary mouse hepatocytes. In addition, ADAM exhibits a moderate ability to regulate PPARγ target genes and drive adipogenesis. Molecular modelling studies indicated that ADAM docks its carboxyl group into opposite ends of the PPARα and -γ LBD. ADAM interacts with the receptor-activating polar network of amino acids (Tyr501, His447 and Ser317) in PPARα, but not in PPARγ LBD. This may explain the lack of PPARγ agonism, and argues for a PPARα-dependent adipogenic function. Such compounds are of interest towards developing new lipid-lowering remedies.     

Synthesis, molecular modeling studies and biological evaluation of fluorine substituted analogs of GW 501516

(±)-2-Fluoro-2-(2-methyl-4-(((4-methyl-2-(4-(trifluoromethyl)phenyl)thiazol-5-yl)methyl)thio)phenoxy)acetic acid (2a) has been prepared and subjected to biological testing against all three subtypes of the PPARs. This compound exhibited agonist effects with EC(50) values of 560 and 55 nM against PPARα and PPARδ, respectively, in a luciferase assay. Moreover, compound (±)-2a also exhibited potent ability to induce oleic acid oxidation in a human myotube cell assay with EC(50)=3.7 nM. Compound (±)-2a can be classified as a dual PPARα/δ agonist with a 10-fold higher potency against the PPARδ receptor than against the PPARα receptor. Molecular modeling studies revealed that both enantiomers of 2a bind to the PPARδ receptor with similar binding energies.     

Switching subtype-selectivity: Fragment replacement strategy affords novel class of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor α/δ (PPARα/δ) dual agonists

Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptors (PPARs) are important drug targets for treatment of dyslipidemia, type 2 diabetes, cardiovascular disease, nonalcoholic fatty liver disease and nonalcoholic steatohepatitis, and great efforts have been made to develop novel PPAR ligands. However, most existing PPAR ligands contain a carboxylic acid (CA) or thiazolidinedione (TZD) structure (acidic head group) that is essential for activity. We recently discovered non-CA/TZD class PPARα/δ partial agonists, which contain an acetamide moiety and adjacent methyl group, linked to a 1,2,4-oxadiazole ring (“fragment a”). We hypothesized that the acetamide structure might interact with the CA/TZD-binding pocket. To test this idea, we firstly replaced fragment a in one of our compounds with the α-alkoxy-CA structure often found in PPAR agonists. Secondly, we replaced the α-alkoxy-CA head group of several reported PPAR agonists with our acetamide-based fragment a. The agonistic activities of the synthesized hybrid compounds toward PPARs (PPARα, PPARγ and PPARδ) were evaluated by means of cell-based reporter gene assays. All the hybrid molecules showed PPAR-agonistic activities, but replacement of the α-alkoxy-CA head group altered the maximum efficacy and the subtype-specificity. The acetamide-based hybrid molecules showed partial agonism toward PPARα and PPARδ, whereas the α-alkoxy-CA-based molecules were generally selective for PPARα and PPARγ, with relatively high activation efficacies. Thus, the fragment replacement strategy appears promising for the development of novel acetamide-based PPARα/δ dual agonists.     

PPARα and PPARγ regulate the nucleoside transporter hENT1

Human equilibrative nucleoside transporter 1 (hENT1) is an important determinant for nucleoside analog based chemotherapy success. Preliminary data suggest hENT1 regulation by PPARs. Using A2780 cells, we investigated the role of PPARs on hENT1 expression and activity. PPARα and PPARγ agonists, Wy14,643 and RGZ, increased hENT1 expression, but only PPARα activation or overexpression resulted in higher hENT1 transport activity. On the other hand, promoter analysis showed two putative PPRE in hENT1 promoter and luciferase-coupled promoter constructs were generated and analyzed. Our results suggest that PPARα-but not PPARγ-mediated expression regulation of hENT1 is PPRE-dependent. In conclusion, PPARα and PPARγ activation modulate hENT1 expression.     

小檗碱对2型糖尿病大鼠肾组织PPARα/δ/γ表达的影响

目的:观察2型糖尿痛大鼠肾组织PPARα/δ/γ蛋白的表达及小檗碱对它们的影响.方法:小剂量注射链脲菌素(35 mg·kg-1,ip)加高糖高脂饲料饲养16周建立2型糖尿病大鼠模型,随后16周每天分别给予低中高剂量小檗碱75、150、300mg·kg-1、非诺贝特100mg·kg1 和罗格列酮4mg·kg-1,处死大鼠后用免疫组化技术检测肾脏组织中PPARα/δ/γ的表达.结果:糖尿病大鼠肾脏中PPARα和PPARδ蛋白表较正常对照大鼠明显降低(P＜0.01),PPARγ表达则较正常对照大鼠明显升高(P＜0.01).中高剂量小檗碱和非诺贝特都能促进糖尿病大鼠肾组织中PPARα和PPARδ的表达(P＜0.01),中高剂量小檗碱和罗格列酮能明显降低PPARγ表达(P＜0.01).结论:糖尿病大鼠肾脏组织中PPARα/δ/γ的表达失常,小檗碱能恢复其表达至接近正常大鼠水平.     

Novel biphenylcarboxylic acid peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor (PPAR) δ selective antagonists

We designed and synthesized novel PPARδ antagonists based on the crystal structure of the PPARδ full agonist TIPP-204 bound to the PPARδ ligand-binding domain, in combination with our nuclear receptor helix 12 folding modification hypothesis. Representative compound 3a exhibits PPARδ-preferential antagonistic activity.