The adaptive significance of cultural behavior: Comments and reply

Summary Fundamentally, theoretically, there is only one process underlying genetic and cultural evolution: natural selection. Organism fitness-enhancement (adaptive significance) is one of its practical mechanisms; group formation and maintenance is another, often but not always through fitness-enhancement; and need-fulfillment is still another. If Durham can accept that formulation, and switch from organism-thinking to instruction-thinking (Cloak, 1975: 178), he will free himself from two handicaps: First, he can forget his worries about reductionism and determinism (1976a: 100, 101). Under this general theory of natural selection, cultural evolutionis biological evolution, continued by other (nongenetic) means. Second, he will spare himself the appearance of anthropomorphism, mentalism, and wishy-washiness attendant on his discussion of kinds of significance, other than adaptive significance, of cultural behaviors (1976a: 102–106, 115).     

T cells in murine lupus: propagation and regulation of disease

MRL/Mp-lpr/lpr mice develop a spontaneous lupus syndrome, including hypergammaglobulinemia, autoantibodies, glomerulonephritis, and lymphadenopathy. To investigate the role of lymphocyte subsets in the pathogenesis of disease, lupus-prone MRL mice deficient in T cells, T cells, or both were generated. Mice deficient in T cells developed a partially penetrant lupus syndrome, characterized by lymphadenopathy, elevated levels of class-switched immunoglobulins, an increased incidence of antinuclear antibodies, and immune deposits in kidneys which progressed to renal insufficiency over time. In comparison to wild type animals, T cell-deficient animals developed an accelerated and exacerbated disease phenotype, characterized by accelerated hypergammaglobulinemia and enhanced autoantibody production and mortality. Repertoire analysis of these latter animals identified polyclonal expansion (V) of CD4+B220-cells. Mice lacking both and T cells failed to generate class-switched autoantibodies and immune complex renal disease. First, these findings demonstrate that murine lupus in the setting of Fas-deficiency does not absolutely require the presence of T cells, and they also suggest that a significant basis for MRL/lpr disease, including renal disease, involves T cell-independent, T cell dependent, polyreactive B cell autoimmunity, upon which T cell-dependent mechanisms aggravate specific autoimmune responses. Second, these data indicate that T cells partake in the regulation of systemic autoimmunity, presumably via their effects on CD4+B220-T cells that provide B cell help. Finally, these results demonstrate that MRL/lpr B cells, despite their intrinsic abnormalities, cannot per se cause tissue injury without T cell help.Abbreviations snRNPs small nuclear ribonucleoprotein particles     

Idioms of distress: Kinship and sickness among the people of the Kingdom of Tonga

Idioms of distress refers to the popular expression of emotional tension that arises in the relationship between sickness and kinship. By reference to case studies and discussions among the Polynesian people of Tonga, the author shows where such tension arises and how it influences the sickness process. Sickness is necessarily a collective phenomenon which can best be understood not simply as a clinical event, but as an experience that is part of the experience of family. Various ways of expressing distress as a reflexive encounter between personal and cultural meaning systems are reviewed, as are several new concepts such as doing sickness as kinship, and turning in the process of decision making in the kinship management of sickness. The explanatory models of sickness in Tonga are shown to encompass culturally sanctioned expressions of distress as part of the adaptive coping mechanisms in that society. Distress frequently emerges in somatic form, as a number of studies have shown. However, the author emphasizes the kinship meaning of sickness, kinship management and sickness therapy, the adaptive process of idiomatic expressions of distress, which are expanded here and offered as potential avenues for elaboration in other cultural milieu. Two aspects of the notion idioms of distress are noted, and the phenomenon is understood as a process which acts as a prime mover in social change.     

Interchange-trisomics in barley

Observations on morphology, sterility and cytology of some interchangetrisomics obtained from the progeny of radiation induced interchangeheterozygotes in a 6-rowed barley (Hordeum vulgare L.) var. K₁₂ are described. The different interchange trisomics show distinct phenotypic expression and have been classified as bushy, slender, robust, semi-erect and pseudonormal on the basis of their gross morphology, leaf characteristics, awn and spike lengths. All interchange trisomics show pollen and ovule sterility which varies between plants. Meiotic behaviour is described. The five different interchange trisomics appear to have different extra chromosomes.     

Problems in estimating growth rates of marine phytoplankton from short-term14C assays

Growth rate estimates () of phytoplankton populations that were sampled from nitrogen-limited continuous cultures and then incubated for short durations in batch culture with added¹⁴C-HCO₃ ^– were significantly different than steady-state growth rates () for 3 of 5 marine phytoplankton species. Two diatoms,Thalassiosira weissflogii andChaetoceros simplex, displayed virtually identical growth rates (=) over a wide range of, whereas for a third diatom,Phaeodactylum tricornutum, was overestimated by an average of 40% compared to. In contrast, was underestimated by the¹⁴C technique for the two remaining species: up to 40% at a steady-state of 1.0 day^–1 for the chlorophyteDunaliella tertiolecta and up to 100% at of 1.4 day^–1 for the haptophytePavlova lutheri. For the latter two species the divergence between and appeared to increase with increasing steady-state. A simple model of labeled and total carbon flow between the aqueous phase and cellular biomass was constructed to demonstrate that respiration was negligible when=, but was significant when>. In the cases in which<, a rapid physiological alteration presumably took place once the steady state was disturbed and cells were placed in the incubation chambers, which perhaps was related to the nutritional state of the cultures at the time of sampling. Questions thus are raised regarding our ability to measure accurately primary productivity from shipboard experiments with confined samples of phytoplankton from nutrient-impoverished waters that probably are less hardy than the laboratory cultures used in these studies.     

The structure of the incompatibility factors of Schizophyllum commune: Constitution of the three classes of B factors

Summary The B factors of Schizophyllum commune are of 3 classes: The high recombining class I has 7 alleles and 7 alleles; the low recombining classes are class II with 7 allels and probably 2 alleles and class III with probably 2 (or also 2) alleles and 7 allels. A fourth hypothetical class (-) was not found and either does not exist or is indistinguishable from class III by the tests employed. The and alleles differ from and by either (a) mutations affecting both mating specificity and recombination frequency, or (b) deletions involving most of the B region.The research was supported by a grant from the Atomic Energy Commission of the U.S. No. (30-1)-3875 and was performed at the Biological Laboratories, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass., U.S.A.     

Rate of free-radical oxidation of C18 diene and triene fatty acids in aqueous micellar solutions and effectiveness of beta-carotene as an inhibitor of their oxidation

The rate of accumulation of conjugated dienes of polyunsaturated fatty acids was measured during free-radical oxidation of linoleic acid (18:2n-6, LA), -linolenic acid (18:3n-3, -LNA), and -linolenic acid (18:3n-6, -LNA) initiated by 2,2"-azo-bis-(2-amidinopropane) hydrochloride in aqueous micellar solutions of sodium dodecyl sulfate and sodium cholate. It was shown that, unlike homogeneous solutions, the oxidative stability of PUFAs in aqueous dispersions increased with an increase in the extent of unsaturation. The rate of LA oxidation was more than tenfold greater than that of - and -LNA. The antioxidant activity of -carotene, in contrast to homogeneous solutions, in both micellar systems studied depended on the degree of PUFA unsaturation. We found that 5 M -carotene effectively inhibited the LA oxidation (almost by 90%), whereas the oxidation of -LNA and -LNA was not inhibited by -carotene even at much greater concentration (30 M). The paradoxical discrepancy between the extent of unsaturation and the PUFA oxidation rate, as well as a decrease in the efficiency of -carotene-dependent inhibition of oxidation of more polyunsaturated fatty acids in reactions conducted in aqueous dispersions is consistent with the model according to which the peroxyl radicals of LA and fatty acids with the doublebond number greater than two exhibit different polarity.     

Existence and uniqueness of a sharp travelling wave in degenerate non-linear diffusion Fisher-KPP equations

In this paper we use a dynamical systems approach to prove the existence of a unique critical value c ^* of the speed c for which the degenerate density-dependent diffusion equation u _ct = [D(u)u _x ] _x + g(u) has: 1. no travelling wave solutions for 0 < c < c ^*, 2. a travelling wave solution u(x, t) = (x - c ^* t) of sharp type satisfying (– ) = 1, () = 0 ^*; '(^*–) = – c ^*/D'(0), '(^*+) = 0 and 3. a continuum of travelling wave solutions of monotone decreasing front type for each c > c ^*. These fronts satisfy the boundary conditions (– ) = 1, '(– ) = (+ ) = '(+ ) = 0. We illustrate our analytical results with some numerical solutions.     

Ia antigens contain two distinct forms of β chain

Two new forms of chain, ₁ and ₂, in I-A immunoprecipitates are described, which differ in their migration values in SDS-PAGE under nonreducing conditions, but which migrate identically in a reduced form. This behavior is very likely due to a different arrangement of intramolecular disulfide bonds which may influence mobility in SDS-PAGE. Peptide map analysis confirmed that ₁ and ₂, possess identical primary polypeptide structures. These two forms of chain are also expressed on the cell surface and it is suggested that both associate with chains. The structural differences in these complexes may lead to an increase in heterogeneity of la antigens which could be of importance for T-cell recognition.     

Zur Paarbildung der Uferschwalbe (Riparia riparia)

Zusammenfassung Uferschwalben kehren aus den afrikanischen Winterquartieren in Trupps beiderlei Geschlechts zurück. Erste Beringungsergebnisse belegen, daß zunächst mehrjährige, vermutlich untereinander bekannte Vögel eintreffen, die den Brutplatz aus vergangenen Brutperioden her kennen. Die Masse der später ankommenden Vögel dürfte weitgehend aus einjährigen oder ortsfremden Uferschwalben bestehen, die sich größtenteils erst während der Paarbildung persönlich kennenlernen. Der anfängliche Schwarmzusammenhalt der nacheinander eintreffenden Trupps führt zur Bildung von Subkolonien, die für Brutplätze ab einer bestimmten Größenordnung typisch sind. Uferschwalben- gründen nacheinander mehrere Reviere, d. h. sie besetzen Steilwandbereiche, in denen sie ausschließlich mit den Füßen eine Röhre oder Mulde graben, singen und Bogenflüge starten. Bis auf singende oder bekannte werden Artgenossen im Revier geduldet. Uferschwalben- suchen besetzte Reviere auf. Ohne Röhrenbindung verhalten sie sich still und unauffällig, ihre Grabungsaktivitäten sind von untergeordneter Bedeutung. Die Bindung an ein bestimmtes Revier entwickelt sich individuell verschieden und entscheidet über den Abschluß des Röhrenbaues (Herstellung der Nistkammer). Reviere ohne dauerhafte -Bindung werden von den aufgegeben. Aktivitäten, die auf wachsende Revierbindung eines hindeuten, sind: häufige oder/und länger dauernde Aufenthalte des in einem besetzten Revier und sporadisches Mitgraben; aggressives Verhalten gegenüber Artgenossen (i. d. R. fremde ), die im Revier landen wollen; gemeinschaftlicher, leiser Gesang von und im Röhrenbereich. Aktivitäten, die für eine vollzogene Paarbildung sprechen, sind: Fertigstellen der Röhre durch Grabung der Nestkammer; längere gemeinsame Aufenthalte innerhalb und außerhalb der Röhre; Voranfliegen des beim Röhrenanflug; Übernachten von und in der Röhre; Nestbau; ausdauernde Verfolgungsflüge während der Kopulationsphase. Die Paarbildung ist demnach ein individueller Prozeß, bei dem die Aktivitäten der im Revier als Werbung, die der als Revierwahl interpretiert werden.

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On pair-formation in the Sand Martin,Riparia riparia

Summary European Sand Martins arrive at their breeding sites in flocks of usually unmated and . Ringing results of a large population in NW-Germany and own observations indicate that the first flocks about a dozen individuals with an approximately balanced sex ratio appear at traditional breeding places and consist of older, experienced resident birds (presumably acquainted with one another). The birds arriving over the next several weeks are mainly first-year or non-resident individuals. The flocks arrive separately in areas with suitable sandcliffs, synchronize the pair-formation activities and avoid disturbances among paired and unpaired birds. This behaviour causes the formation of subcolonies, which are typical for all densely occupied breeding places. Each settles on a fixed area on the sandcliff (territory) in order to excavate a burrow, to sing the territory-song (fig. 2 b) and to perfor the territory-circle-flight (fig. 2 c, 4 a). Silent birds (normally ) are welcomed or tolerated by the resident . The sexes are monomorphic and therefore courtship displays of the are non-aggressive until establishment of pair-bonds. Only intruding singing or individually known neighbouring are driven away, usually at early stages of territory occupation. Unmated are normally shy and very sensitive to protracted disturbances. visit several occupied territories of the colony (fig. 1–3) in order to choose a burrow. leave territories which do not attract a . They settle new territories on the sandcliff, causing a surplus of burrows compared to breeding pairs in the colony. Activities which indicate the development of pair-bonds are: regular visits of a to a particular occupied territory with sporadic excavations by the ; aggressive activities of the towards other visitors usually , but sometimes at first even against the resident (i. e.: vocal threats, bill-gaping, pecking or pushing with the bill or vigorous face-to-face fights, fig. 3 b, 3 c). and sing the soft mating song at or in the burrow (fig. 1 c). Activities which indicate completed pair-bonds are: completion of the burrow by digging the nestchamber, predominantly done by the ; both birds staying together over long periods, both inside and outside the burrow; invitation-flight by the (fig. 4 b); and spending the night together in the burrow; beginning of nest-building, first only by the , then by both birds and finally only by the , accompanied by the (guarding-flight;, fig. 4c); mate-pursuit flights (sexual chases) during copulation phase, in which the singing pursues the silent , often accompanied by other (cp. fig. 4 d). Pair-formation in the Sand Martin occurs on individual territories and not, according toHickling (1959), within the flock.

     

'Eloquent Chaos' in the Oral Discourse of Killing Fields Survivors: An Exploration of Atrocity and Narrativization

If narrative implies a form of discourse in which sequencedevents are meaningfully connected, an anti-narrative is achaotic discourse form of time without sequence, telling withoutmediation, and speaking about oneself without being fully able toreflect on oneself (Frank 1995: 98). This paper examinesnarratives and anti-narratives in the oral discourses ofsurvivors of the Cambodian killing fields. Through an extendedanalysis of two cases, we demonstrate the internal logic and eloquence of anti-narratives – i.e., the ways in whichanti-narrative patterns vividly express and reveal a survivor'scomplex and continuing experience of atrocity.     

The size and form of DNA molecules from microsporocytes of Lilium longiflorum at different stages of meiosis

DNA molecules from lysates of microsporocytes at different stages of meiosis of Lilium longiflorum were examined in the electron microscope. In all of the preparations, only linear (non-circular) molecules were found. They had a mean length of between 59 and 75 , and a range of lengths which varied from 1 to 115 , to 1 to 210 . From the data obtained, there was no indication of a change in molecular form or size of DNA molecules associated with the process of meiosis.     

Methodological problems in evolutionary biology VII. The species plague

Various philosophers and evolutionary biologists have recently defended the thesis that species are individuals rather than sets. A decade of debates, however, did not suffice to settle the matter. Conceptual analysis shows that many of the key terms involved (individuation, evolutionary species, spatiotemporal restrictedness, individual) are ambiguous. Current disagreements should dissolve once this is recognized. Explication of the concepts involved leads to new programs for philosophical research. It could also help biology by showing how extant controversies concerning evolution may have conceptual rather than factual roots.     

Studies on aneuploids of Petunia

Summary The seven possible primary trisomics of Petunia (2 n= 14) located in the progenies of triploid, hypertriploid and hypotriploid plants were distinguished from one another and from diploid on the basis of cytological and morphological criteria. They were provisionally named as Oval, Semi, Slender, Pseudonormal, Arrow, Narrow and Giant. In three of the trisomics, the extra chromosome was identified for the first time at pachytene stage. Postpachytene studies revealed no precise relationship between the length of extra chromosome and the frequency of multiple association.     

Further cytogenetic analyses of the Croatian triploid shallot “Ljutika” (Allium cepa var.viviparum, Alliaceae) and its comparison with the Indian triploid “Pran”

Feulgen and silver-stained karyotypes and meiosis of two triploid viviparous onion forms (Allium cepa var.viviparum), the Croatian Ljutika and the Indian Pran, were comparatively analyzed. The results of chromosome measurements show that Ljutika and Pran are karyologically not identical, although significant similarities were found in the morphology of their chromosomes. Five geographically distant clones of Ljutika showed good agreement in the number and gross morphology of the chromosomes and in the number and position of NORs and interphase nucleoli. Heterotrivalents were predominant in meiosis of Ljutika but a relatively high frequency of higher multivalents together with univalents and bivalents were also observed. The relationship between Ljutika and Pran and their possible origin are discussed.     

An overview of Acipenseriformes

Acipenseriformes occupy a special place in the history of ideas concerning fish evolution, but in many respects, phylogenetic studies of the group remain in their infancy. Even such basic questions as the monophyly of Acipenser (the largest genus) are unanswered. We define relationships based on comparative osteology, which allows us to incorporate well-preserved fossils into analyses. Acipenseriformes has existed at least since the Lower Jurassic (approximately 200 MYBP), and all fossil and recent taxa are from the Holarctic. Phylogenetic relationships among Paleozoic and Early Mesozoic actinopterygians are problematic, but most workers agree that Acipenseriformes is monophyletic and derived from some component of paleonisciform fishes. (Paleonisciformes is a grade of primitive non-neopterygian actinopterygians, sensu Gardiner 1993.) Taxa discussed in comparison here are: Cheirolepis, Polypterus, Mimia, Moythomasia, Birgeria, Saurichthys, Lepisosteus and Amia. We review generic diversity within the four nominal families of fossil and recent Acipenseriformes (Chondrosteidae, Peipiaosteidae, Polyodontidae, and Acipenseridae), and provide a cladogram summarizing osteological characters for those four groups. Monophyly of the two extant families is well-supported, but there are no comprehensive studies of all of the known species and specimens of Chondrosteidae and Peipiaosteidae. As a result, sister-group relationships among Chondrosteidae, Peipiaosteidae, and Acipenseroidei (= Polyodontidae + Acipenseridae) are unresolved. We discuss five features fundamental to the biology of acipenseriforms that benefit from the availability of our new phylogenetic hypothesis: (1) specializations of jaws and operculum relevant to jaw protrusion, feeding, and ram ventilation; (2) anadromy or potamodromy and demersal spawning; (3) paedomorphosis and evolution of the group; (4) the bioégeography of Asian and North American polyodontids and scaphirhynchines; and (5) the great abundance of electroreceptive organs in the rostral and opercular regions. Finally, we summarize our nomenclatural recommendations.     

Quantitative utilization of selected grasses by fall armyworm larvae

Food utilization by larvae of the fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda [J. E. Smith]) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae), showed greater consumption of corn (Zea mays L.) than pinto bean diet, Tifton 10, or Coastal bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon [L.] Pers.). Transfer of larvae from diet to susceptible grasses such as corn, Tifton 10 or Coastal produced differences in growth rates as a result of food consumption rates. Transfer of larvae from diet to resistant grasses such as common centipedegrass (Eremochola ophiuroides [Munro] Hack) Tifton 292 bermudagrass, and zoysiagrass (Zoysia sp.) reduced larval growth as a result of low consumption rates and/or greater metabolic expenditures. Larvae initially fed Tifton 10, Coastal, or centipedegrass before feeding on corn grew significantly faster than when they fed continuously on corn.

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Résumé Des chenilles de S. frugiperda ont consommé plus de maïs (Zea mays), que d'un régime à base de Phaseolus vulgaris de la variété Pinto, ou de Tifton 10, ou de Cynodon dactylon de la variété Coastal. Des chenilles, transférées du régime artificiel sur des plantes sensibles comme le maïs, le Tifton 10 ou le Coastal, ont présenté des taux de croissance différents provenant de modifications de leur consommation. Le transfert du régime à des plantes résistantes, telles que Eremochola ophiuroides, Tifton 292, C. dactylon et Zoysia sp., a entraîné une diminution de la croissance larvaire par suite d'une plus faible consommation et/ou de dépenses métaboliques plus élevées. Des chenilles ayant consommé du Tifton 10, du Coastal ou de l'E. ophiuroides avant de consommer du maïs, se sont développées significativement plus vite que celles qui s'étaient alimentées continuellement sur maïs.

     

α-and β-Glycosidases in maize roots

Four glycosidases were analyzed in 10 mm apical segments prepared from growing roots (15 mm) of Zea mays L. The pH optima were found to be 5.8 for -glucosidase, 4.4 for -galactosidase, 6.4 for -glucosidase and 6.0 for -galactosidase. The -glucosidase showed 4-fold higher activity than the -galactosidase. The distribution of the -glucosidase activity was signifcantly different from that of the -galactosidase, -glucosidase and -galactosidase.Abbreviations -Glu -glucosidase - -Gal -galactosidase - -Glu -glucosidase - -Gal -galactosidase     

An increase in the “inhibitor-β” content of detached wheat leaves following a period of wilting

Summary Wheat seedlings were grown under a 14-hour photoperiod and the first leaves excised at the end of the eighth dark period. The effect of treatments causing wilting on the inhibitor- content of such leaves was studied.When leaves were rapidly wilted (i.e. to a 6% fresh weight loss) and extracted immediately, the amount of inhibitor- per leaf was found to be the same as in fresh turgid leaves. However, when the leaves were maintained in a wilted condition in darkness for a period of 110 minutes, there was a marked increase in inhibitor- content.The greater the degree of wilting (i.e. up to about a 9% loss in fresh weight) the greater the eventual inhibitor- content. Moreover, the increment in inhibitor- was shown to be temperature dependent.The time lapse requirement and the temperature dependency of the inhibitor- formation suggest an enzymic conversion from a precursor.If a similar phenomenon occurs during the wilting of intact plants then the increase in this growth inhibitor might play a role in some of the physiological changes which accompany water stress.     

Adaptive Evolution of Scorpion Sodium Channel Toxins

Gene duplication followed by positive Darwinian selection is an important evolutionary event at the molecular level, by which a gene can gain new functions. Such an event might have occurred in the evolution of scorpion sodium channel toxin genes (- and -groups). To test this hypothesis, a robust statistical method from Yang and co-workers based on the estimation of the nonsynonymous-to-synonymous rate ratio ( = d_N/d_S) was performed. The results provide clear statistical evidence for adaptive molecular evolution of scorpion - and -toxin genes. A good match between the positively selected sites (evolutionary epitopes) and the putative bioactive surface (functional epitopes) indicates that these sites are most likely involved in functional recognition of sodium channels. Our results also shed light on the importance of the B-loop in the functional diversification of scorpion - and -toxins.