Nitric oxide synthesis is blocked in the enteral nervous system during dormant periods of the snail<Emphasis Type="Italic"> Helix lucorum</Emphasis>

During dormancy of terrestrial snails, the whole neuromodulation of the nervous system is deeply modified. In this work we studied the adaptation of a previously described, putatively nitric oxide (NO) forming enteral network to the long-term resting periods of the snail Helix lucorum. The standard NADPH diaphorase (NADPHd) technique, which is an accepted method for histochemical NO synthase (NOS) detection, labeled the same enteric neurons of the midintestine in active or hibernated snails. Quantification of the NO-derived nitrite by the Griess reaction established that the nitrite formation is confined to the NADPHd-reactive network containing the midintestinal segment. In active snails, the nitrite formation could be enhanced by the NOS substrate l-arginine (10 M–1 mM), but decreased by the known NOS inhibitors 1 mM N-nitro-l-arginine (NOARG) and 10 mM aminoguanidine (AG). Application of 1 mM l-arginine and 1 mM NOARG decreased the amplitude of the midintestinal muscle contractile activity, but did not affect the rectal motility. In dormancy, the nitrite formation was reduced in the NADPHd-reactive midintestinal network. Application of l-arginine could not provoke nitrite production and did not influence the midintestinal motility. Our findings indicate that NO is involved in the neural transmission to intestinal muscles of gastropods, but enteric release of NO is blocked during dormancy. The decreased NO synthesis is possibly due to an as yet undefined mechanism, by which the l-arginine/NO conversion ability of NOS could temporarily be inhibited in the long-term resting period of H. lucorum.T. Röszer and Zs. Czimmerer contributed equally to this work as lead authors. This research was supported by OTKA grant no. T42762 (G.B.) and PRCH Student Science Foundation grants 2000, 2002 (T.R.) and 2003 (Zs. Cz). The study is dedicated to Borbála Vecsei-Czimmerer, Elemér Czimmerer, Ágnes M. Fodor-Röszer and József S. Röszer.     

Phylogenetic analysis of molluscan mitochondrial LSU rDNA sequences and secondary structures

Mollusks are an extraordinarily diverse group of animals with an estimated 200,000 species, second only to the phylum Arthropoda. We conducted a comparative analysis of complete mitochondrial ribosomal large subunit sequences (LSU) of a chiton, two bivalves, six gastropods, and a cephalopod. In addition, we determined secondary structure models for each of them. Comparative analyses of nucleotide variation revealed substantial length variation among the taxa, with stylommatophoran gastropods possessing the shortest lengths. Phylogenetic analyses of the nucleotide sequence data supported the monophyly of Albinaria, Euhadra herklotsi + Cepaea nemoralis, Stylommatophora, Cerithioidea, and when only transversions are included, the Bivalvia. The phylogenetic limits of the mitochondrial LSU rRNA gene within mollusks appear to be up to 400 million years, although this estimate will have to be tested further with additional taxa. Our most novel finding was the discovery of phylogenetic signal in the secondary structure of rRNA of mollusks. The absence of entire stem/loop structures in Domains II, III, and V can be viewed as three shared derived characters uniting the stylommatophoran gastropods. The absence of the aforementioned stem/loop structure explains much of the observed length variation of the mitochondrial LSU rRNA found within mollusks. The distribution of these unique secondary structure characters within mollusks should be examined.     

Acetylcholine inhibits nitric oxide (NO) synthesis in the gastropod nervous system

Acetylcholine (ACh) is one of the main signals regulating nitric oxide synthase (NOS) expression and nitric oxide (NO) biosynthesis in mammals. However, few comparative studies have been performed on the role of ACh on NOS activity in non-mammalian animals. We have therefore studied the cholinergic control of NOS in the snail Helix pomatia and compared the effects of ACh on NO synthesis in the enteric nervous system of the snail and rat. Analyses by the NADPH-diaphorase reaction, immunocytochemistry, purification with ion-exchange chromatography, Western-blot, and quantitative polymerase chain reaction have revealed the expression of neuronal NOS in the rat intestine and of a 60-kDa subunit of NOS in the enteric nerve plexus of H. pomatia. In H. pomatia, quantification of the NO-derived nitrite ions has established that NO formation is confined to the NOS-containing midintestine. Nitrite production can be elevated by L-arginine but inhibited by N_ω-nitro-L-arginine. In rats, ACh moderately elevates nitrite production, whereas ACh, the nicotinic receptor agonists (nicotine, acetyl thiocholine iodide, metacholine) and the cholinesterase inhibitor eserine reduce enteric nitrite formation in snails. The nicotinic receptor antagonist tubocurarine also provokes nitrite liberation, whereas the muscarinic receptor agonists or antagonists have no significant effect in snails. In the presence of EDTA or tetrodotoxin, ACh fails to inhibit nitrite production. In pharmacological studies, we have found that ACh contracts the midintestinal muscles and, in snails, simultaneously reduces the antagonistic muscle relaxant effect of L-arginine. Our experiments provide the first evidence for an inhibitory regulation of neuronal NO synthesis by ACh in an invertebrate species. This article is dedicated to Dr. Gábor Hollósi on the 50th anniversary of his graduation and being a teacher at the University of Debrecen.     

Stimulation of NO synthase activity in the immune-competent lepidopteran Estigmene acraea hemocyte line.

In contrast to the vertebrate immune system, nearly nothing is known about the immunological role of nitric oxide (NO) in invertebrates. This study provides evidence of the presence of a NO synthase (NOS) activity in an immune-competent, macrophage-like insect hemocyte line, previously established from larvae of the lepidopteran insect Estigmene acraea. As proven by photometric determination of nitroblue tetrazolium reduction after cell fixation, the E. acraea cells possess NADPH diaphorase (NADPHd) activity. This NADPH diaphorase activity was NADPH dependent, not inhibitable by superoxide dismutase, influenced by extracellular addition of L-arginine, and inhibited in a dose-dependent manner by the specific NOS inhibitor Nomega-monomethyl-L-arginine. Furthermore, the NADPH diaphorase activity was stimulated within 30 min by the addition of insect pathogenic bacteria (Bacillus thuringiensis var. kurstaki, Photorhabdus luminescens), bacterial lipopolysaccharide, and silica beads. In activated E. acraea cell suspensions strongly increased amounts of L-citrulline and enhanced levels of total nitrite/nitrate (as NO derivates) can be determined. This is the first report on stimulable NOS activity in insect hemocytes.     

Phe-met-arg-phe (FMRF)-amide is a substrate source of NO synthase in the gastropod nervous system

The possible involvement of the L-arginine-containing Phe-met-arg-phe (FMRF)-amide (FMRFa) in neuronal nitric oxide (NO) biosynthesis was studied in a gastropod species. We found NADPH-diaphorase-positive neurons and FMRFa-containing fibers in close proximity in the enteric nervous system. Administration of L-arginine and FMRFa induced quantitatively similar nitrite production in both intact intestinal tissues and tissue homogenates. These changes could be prevented by the presence of NOARG (an NO synthase inhibitor). Neither chemically modified FMRFa (D-arginine instead of L-arginine) nor amino acid constituents of FMRFa (methionine, phenylalanine) affected basal nitrite production. FMRFa-induced alterations were reduced in the presence of Na⁺ channel blockers (tetrodotoxin, amiloride, lidocaine), the Na⁺/K⁺ATPase inhibitor ouabain, or protease inhibitors (leupeptine, pepstatine-a). FMRFa and its amino acid constituents were analyzed by paper chromatography. When FMRFa was added to tissue homogenates, the peptide was eliminated within 1–2 min, whereas methionine, phenylalanine, arginine, and citrulline levels were elevated simultaneously. We tested the effects of FMRFa, L-arginine, and NOARG on intestinal contractile activity. FMRFa relaxed the intestine for 1–2 min and then induced contractions for 20–40 min. In the presence of NOARG, no relaxant effect of FMRFa was recorded. As administration of L-arginine strongly inhibits the mechanical activity of the intestinal muscle, NO production presumably plays a substantial role in the action of FMRFa, at least in the initial phase. Our biochemical data indicate a direct involvement of FMRFa in NO biosynthesis. FMRFa might be hydrolyzed by extracellular peptidases and then the locally released arginine might be transported into the cells and broken-down to produce NO. Depolarization-induced NO production attributable to the activation of amiloride-sensitive Na⁺ channels might also be involved.     

Seasonal periodicity of enteric nitric oxide synthesis and its regulation in the snail, Helix lucorum

Abstract. The snail Helix lucorum has been used as a model to study the adaptation of a nitric oxide (NO)‐forming enteric neural network to the long‐term resting period of summer estivation or winter hibernation. Quantification of the NO‐derived nitrite established that NO formation is confined to the nitric oxide synthase (NOS)‐containing myenteric network of the mid‐intestine. In active snails but not in resting snails, NO production could be enhanced by the NOS substrate l ‐arginine (l ‐ARG, 1 mM). We followed the enteric NO synthesis in a snail population kept at natural conditions for 1 year. Our findings indicate that NO synthesis was depressed in July during entry to the estivation, had a peak in autumn before hibernation, and finally was reduced during hibernation. Monoamines (histamine, serotonin, and adrenalin) could inhibit the NO liberation in active snails. Cofactors of NOS (β‐NADPH, β‐NAD, FAD, FMN, Ca²⁺, TH4) did not alter the low nitrite production in hibernating snails. We conclude that enteric NO synthesis in H. lucorum has a regular seasonal periodicity following the annual physiological cycles of terrestrial snails. During estivation or hibernation, NOS activity is blocked. Monoamines, the levels of which are elevated during hibernation, can trigger decreased NOS activity. The reduced activity of NOS cannot be restored by the administration of NOS cofactors; therefore, their absence cannot be the cause of the temporarily blocked L‐ARG/NO conversion ability of NOS.     

Evaluation of nitric oxide production by lactobacilli

Six strains of Lactobacillus fermentum and Lactobacillus plantarum were investigated for nitric oxide (NO) production. First, the potential presence of NO synthase was examined. None of the strains of L. fermentum and L. plantarum examined produced NO from L-arginine under aerobic conditions. Interestingly, all L. fermentum strains expressed strong L-arginine deiminase activity. All L. fermentum strains produced NO in MRS broth, but the NO was found to be chemically derived from nitrite, which was produced by L. fermentum from nitrate present in the medium. Indeed all L. fermentum strains express nitrate reductase under anaerobic conditions. Moreover, one strain, L. fermentum LF1, had nitrate reductase activity under aerobic conditions. It was also found that L. fermentum strains JCM1173 and LF1 possessed ammonifying nitrite reductase. The latter strain also had denitrifying nitrite reductase activity at neutral pH under both anaerobic and aerobic conditions. The LF1 strain is thus capable of biochemically converting nitrate to NO. NO and nitrite produced from nitrate by lactobacilli may constitute a potential antimicrobial mechanism. studied in a rat acute liver injury model (Adawi et al. 1997). The results indicate that Lactobacillus plantarum DSM 9842 may possess NOS (Adawi et al. 1997). However, NO production from L-arginine has not been investigated in pure cultures of L. plantarum. According to the results of a 15N enrichment experiment, traces of (NO2-+NO3-)-N (total oxidised nitrogen: TON), which seemed to be formed by the resting cells of Lactobacillus fermentum IFO3956, appeared to be derived from L-arginine (Morita et al. 1997). Therefore, it was suggested that L. fermentum may possess a NOS. However, NO produced from L-arginine was not directly measured and a NOS inhibitor test was not performed by Morita et al. (1997). It is known that L-arginine deiminase (ADI) in bacteria may convert L-arginine to NH4+ (Cunin et al. 1986), which may be further oxidised to TON via nitrification by bacteria. Therefore, 15N enrichment experiments could not definitely conclude that L. fermentum possess NOS to convert L-arginine directly to NO. In this study, six Lactobacillus strains belonging to L. plantarum and L. fermentum were measured for NO production in MRS broth. The metabolism of nitrate and L-arginine by the Lactobacillus cell suspensions was also studied. The possibility that NO and nitrite production by lactobacilli may be a potential probiotic trait is also discussed.     

O-Glycosylation of snails

The glycosylation abilities of snails deserve attention, because snail species serve as intermediate hosts in the developmental cycles of some human and cattle parasites. In analogy to many other host-pathogen relations, the glycosylation of snail proteins may likewise contribute to these host-parasite interactions. Here we present an overview on the O-glycan structures of 8 different snails (land and water snails, with or without shell): Arion lusitanicus, Achatina fulica, Biomphalaria glabrata, Cepaea hortensis, Clea helena, Helix pomatia, Limax maximus and Planorbarius corneus. The O-glycans were released from the purified snail proteins by β-elimination. Further analysis was carried out by liquid chromatography coupled to electrospray ionization mass spectrometry and - for the main structures - by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. Snail O-glycans are built from the four monosaccharide constituents: N-acetylgalactosamine, galactose, mannose and fucose. An additional modification is a methylation of the hexoses. The common trisaccharide core structure was determined in Arion lusitanicus to be N-acetylgalactosamine linked to the protein elongated by two 4-O-methylated galactose residues. Further elongations by methylated and unmethylated galactose and mannose residues and/or fucose are present. The typical snail O-glycan structures are different to those so far described. Similar to snail N-glycan structures they display methylated hexose residues.     

Complementary distribution of NADPH-diaphorase and l-arginine in the snail nervous system

Since the interneuronal messenger nitric oxide (NO) can not be stored in neurones, the regulation of the NO-producing enzyme nitric oxide synthase (NOS) is crucial. Neuronal NOS metabolises L-arginine to nitric oxide (NO) and L-citrulline in a Ca(2+)-dependent manner. Thus, availability of L-arginine to NOS may modulate NO production. In this study, we examined the cellular distribution of reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH)-diaphorase, L-arginine and L-citrulline. Using NADPH-diaphorase histochemistry to visualise putative NO-producing cells and immunocytochemistry to localise L-arginine, we showed that the distribution of L-arginine-immunoreactive neurones correlates well with those of NADPH-diaphorase-positive neurones in cerebral ganglia of the pulmonate Helix pomatia. However, substrate and enzyme were visualised in separate but adjacent neurones. We further examined whether NADPH-diaphorase-labelled cells contain the L-citrulline. Following elevation of intracellular Ca(2+) by the Ca(2+) ionophore, ionomycin, or by a high-K(+) solution, the number of L-citrulline-immunoreactive neurones in mesocerebrum and pedal lobe increased up to tenfold. Preincubation of ganglia with the NOS inhibitor N(G)-nitro-L-arginine prevented ionomycin or high-K(+) solution-induced L-citrulline synthesis. Most L-citrulline-immunoreactive neurones contain NADPH-diaphorase activity. In conclusion, these experiments indicate a complementary distribution of NOS and L-arginine and suggest an unknown signalling pathway between neurones to maintain L-arginine and NO homeostasis.     

Light and electron microscopy study of the salivary gland secretory cells of Helicoidea (Gastropoda, Stylommatophora)

We have studied the secretory goblet-cells of the salivary gland of six species of Helicoidea: Elona quimperiana, Trissexodon constrictus, Hygromia limbata, Cernuella aginnica, Cepaea nemoralis and Helix aspersa, using light microscopy and transmission electron microscopy. In each of the species studied, we have been able to demonstrate the presence of four cell types. Following a comparative study with the goblet-gland cells present in the six species in question, and the comparison of our data with previously published reports on the entire set of Stylommatophora, we have established the homologies corresponding to the cell types observed. Our hypotheses were based primarily on the morphology of the rough endoplasmic reticulum and of the secretory vesicles. Accordingly, we have defined five cell types for these six species. The first three cell types, A, B and C, appear in the six species studied and seem to be present in all the stylommatophores. In order to standardize the terminology used by the different authors, we propose that these cell types be called: 'swollen RER cisterns mucocyte', 'granular mucocyte' and 'alveolar cell', respectively. The D-cell type or 'basophilous cell' is present only in Hygromia limbata, Cernuella aginnica, Cepaea nemoralis and Helix aspersa. The E-cell type or 'vacuolated cell' appears only in Elona quimperiana and Trissexodon constrictus.     

Evolution of Pulmonate Gastropod Mitochondrial Genomes: Comparisons of Gene Organizations of Euhadra, Cepaea and Albinaria and Implications of Unusual Trna Secondary Structures

Complete gene organizations of the mitochondrial genomes of three pulmonate gastropods, Euhadra herklotsi, Cepaea nemoralis and Albinaria coerulea, permit comparisons of their gene organizations. Euhadra and Cepaea are classified in the same superfamily, Helicoidea, yet they show several differences in the order of tRNA and protein coding genes. Albinaria is distantly related to the other two genera but shares the same gene order in one part of its mitochondrial genome with Euhadra and in another part with Cepaea. Despite their small size (14.1-14.5 kbp), these snail mtDNAs encode 13 protein genes, two rRNA genes and at least 22 tRNA genes. These genomes exhibit several unusual or unique features compared to other published metazoan mitochondrial genomes, including those of other molluscs. Several tRNAs predicted from the DNA sequences possess bizarre structures lacking either the T stem or the D stem, similar to the situation seen in nematode mt-tRNAs. The acceptor stems of many tRNAs show a considerable number of mismatched basepairs, indicating that the RNA editing process recently demonstrated in Euhadra is widespread in the pulmonate gastropods. Strong selection acting on mitochondrial genomes of these animals would have resulted in frequent occurrence of the mismatched basepairs in regions of overlapping genes.     

Projections of neurochemically specified neurons in the porcine colon

The intramural projections of nerve cells containing serotonin (5-HT), calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP) and nitric oxide synthase or reduced nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate diaphorase (NOS/NADPHd) were studied in the ascending colon of 5- to 6-week-old pigs by means of immunocytochemistry and histochemistry in combination with myectomy experiments. In control tissue of untreated animals, positive nerve cells and fibres were common in the myenteric and outer submucous plexus and, except for 5-HT-positive perikarya, immunoreactive cell bodies and fibres were also observed in the inner submucous plexus. VIP- and NOS/NADPHd-positive nerve fibres occurred in the ciruclar muscle layer while VIP was also abundant in nerve fibres of the mucosal layer. 5-HT- and CGRP-positive nerve fibres were virtually absent from the aganglionic nerve networks. In the submucosal layer, numerous paravascular CGRP-immunoreactive (IR) nerve fibres were encountered. Myectomy studies revealed that 5-HT-, CGRP-, VIP- and NOS/NADPHd-positive myenteric neurons all displayed anal projections within the myenteric plexus. In addition, some of the serotonergic myenteric neurons projected anally to the outer submucous plexus, whereas a great number of the VIP-ergic and nitrergic myenteric neurons send their axons towards the circular muscle layer. The possible function of these nerve cells in descending nerve pathways in the porcine colon is discussed in relation to the distribution pattern of their perikarya and processes and some of their morphological characteristics.     

Twenty-four-hour variation of L-arginine/nitric oxide/cyclic guanosine monophosphate pathway demonstrated by the mouse visceral pain model

The L-arginine/nitric oxide (NO)/cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) pathway is known to be involved in central and peripheral nociceptive processes. This study evaluated the rhythmic pattern of the L-arginine/NO/cGMP pathway using the mouse visceral pain model. Experiments were performed at six different times (1, 5, 9, 13, 17, and 21 h after light on) per day in male mice synchronized to a 12 h:12 h light-dark cycle. Animals were injected s.c. with saline, 2 mg/kg L-arginine (a NO precursor), 75 mg/kg L-N(G)-nitroarginine methyl ester (L-NAME, a NOS inhibitor), 40 mg/kg methylene blue (a soluble guanylyl cyclase and/or NOS inhibitor), or 0.1 mg/kg sodium nitroprusside (a nonenzymatic NO donor) 15 min before counting 2.5 mg/kg (i.p.) p-benzoquinone (PBQ)-induced abdominal constrictions for 15 min. Blood samples were collected after the test, and the nitrite concentration was determined in serum samples. L-arginine or L-NAME caused both antinociception and nociception, depending on the circadian time of their injection. The analgesic effect of methylene blue or sodium nitroprusside exhibited significant biological time-dependent differences in PBQ-induced abdominal constrictions. Serum nitrite levels also displayed a significant 24 h variation in mice injected with PBQ, L-NAME, methylene blue, or sodium nitroprusside, but not saline or L-arginine. These results suggest that components of L-arginine/NO/cGMP pathway exhibit biological time-dependent effects on visceral nociceptive process.     

Distribution of NADPH-diaphorase-positive ascending interneurones in the crayfish terminal abdominal ganglion

Previous neuropharmacological studies have described the presence of a nitric oxide-cGMP signalling pathway in the crayfish abdominal nervous system. In this study we have analysed the distribution of putative nitric oxide synthase (NOS)-containing ascending interneurones in the crayfish terminal abdominal ganglion using NADPH-diaphorase (NADPHd) histochemistry. Ascending intersegmental interneurones were stained intracellularly using the fluorescent dye Lucifer yellow and the ganglia containing the stained interneurones subsequently processed for NADPHd activity. Fluorescence persisted throughout histochemical processing. These double-labelling experiments showed that 12 of 18 identified ascending interneurones were NADPHd positive. Thus many ascending interneurones that process mechanosensory signals in the terminal ganglion may contain NOS, and are themselves likely sources of NO which is known to modulate their synaptic inputs. Three clear relationships emerged from our analysis between the effects of NO on the synaptic inputs of interneurones, their output properties and their staining for NADPH-diaphorase. First were class 1 interneurones with no local outputs in the terminal ganglion, the NE type interneurones, which had sensory inputs that were enhanced by NO and were NADPHd positive. Second were class 1 interneurones with local and intersegmental output effects that had sensory inputs that were also enhanced by NO but were NADPHd negative. Third were class 2 interneurones with local and intersegmental outputs that had synaptic inputs that were depressed by the action of NO but were NADPHd positive. These results suggest that NO could selectively enhance specific synaptic connections and sensory processing pathways in local circuits.     

Increased L-arginine uptake and inducible nitric oxide synthase activity in aortas of rats with heart failure

L-Arginine crosses the cell membrane primarily through the system y(+) transporter. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of L-arginine transport in nitric oxide (NO) production in aortas of rats with heart failure induced by myocardial infarction. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha levels in aortas of rats with heart failure were six times higher than in sham rats (P < 0.01). L-Arginine uptake was increased in aortas of rats with heart failure compared with sham rats (P < 0.01). Cationic amino acid transporter-2B and inducible (i) nitric oxide synthase (NOS) expression were increased in aortas of rats with heart failure compared with sham rats (P < 0.05). Aortic strips from rats with heart failure treated with L-arginine but not D-arginine increased NO production (P < 0.05). The effect of L-arginine on NO production was blocked by L-lysine, a basic amino acid that shares the same system y(+) transporter with L-arginine, and by the NOS inhibitor N(G)-nitro-L-arginine methyl ester (L-NAME). Treatment with L-lysine and L-NAME in vivo decreased plasma nitrate and nitrite levels in rats with heart failure (P < 0.05). Our data demonstrate that NO production is dependent on iNOS activity and L-arginine uptake and suggest that L-arginine transport plays an important role in enhanced NO production in heart failure.     

Vaso-occlusion in Schimke-immuno-osseous dysplasia: is the NO pathway involved?

Schimke-immuno-osseous dysplasia (SIOD) is an autosomal recessive disorder with the main clinical findings of spondyloepiphyseal dysplasia, nephrotic syndrome, and defective cellular immunity. Vaso-occlusive processes, especially generalized atherosclerosis, are a life-limiting complication in patients with severe SIOD. The nitric oxide synthase (NOS) oxidizes L-arginine to nitric oxide (NO). NO is a potent vasodilator with inhibitory effects on platelet aggregation and the development of atherosclerosis. We hypothesized that reduced NO production due to antagonism of NOS by asymmetric dimethylarginine (ADMA) would be a possible pathophysiological mechanism for vaso-occlusion in SIOD. We tested this hypothesis in 10 patients with SIOD and 10 age-matched healthy controls. Plasma and urine levels of nitrite and nitrate, the indicators of NO synthesis, and of ADMA, an endogenous NOS inhibitor, in children suffering from SIOD were not significantly different from those in the age-matched healthy controls. Our results suggest that the L-arginine/NO pathway is not altered in SIOD. Antagonism of NOS by ADMA does not seem to be the cause of premature general atherosclerosis in SIOD. The underlying pathology of vaso-occlusion in SIOD still remains unclear.     

The distribution and variation of three species of land snail near Rickmansworth, Hertfordshire

The distribution of Arianta arbustorum, Cepaea nemoralis and C. hortensis , and the variations in the shell polymorphism of the Cepaea species have been studied in an area of low chalk downland and alluvial river valleys near Rickmansworth, Hertfordshire. The distribution of A. arbustorum is restricted, the species being largely confined to the bottoms of river valleys, especially in hedgerows. Variations in dampness seem the most likely limiting factor. C. hortensis is widespread and found in many habitats, but C. nemoralis is largely confined to woods, and is especially common in beechwoods. The morph-frequencies of C. nemoralis and C. hortensis vary in such a way as to suggest the operation of climatic and visual selection. In C. hortensis there are area effects for the presence or absence of pink five-banded shells, and there is an overall linkage disequilibrium resulting in an excess of unbandeds in non-yellow shells. Reasonable evidence for the operation of random factors in determining the morph-frequencies of populations of Cepaea in the area has been found only for three very disturbed populations. It is suggested that the large number of selective forces known to act on Cepaea populations in this area will account for the variation in morph-frequencies in populations from the same area or habitat.     

Methods using stable isotopes to measure nitric oxide (NO) synthesis in the L-arginine/NO pathway in health and disease

Nitric oxide (NO) is an important gaseous radical involved in many physiological processes. It is produced from the amino acid L-arginine by the action of nitric oxide synthases (NOS) in what is called the L-arginine/NO pathway. Tracking its metabolic fate in biological fluids is of particular interest as it may indicate how the human body responds in health and disease. However, due to its short life span (a few seconds) it is very difficult to accurately monitor any up- or down-regulation in body fluids in vivo. As a consequence, methods have been developed based on the measurement of the NO-derived products nitrite and nitrate or on the substrate of NO, L-arginine and its simultaneously generated product, L-citrulline. Considering only a fraction of the endogenous L-arginine pool is used for the synthesis of NO, NO-production cannot be estimated by measuring changes in the concentrations of L-arginine and/or L-citrulline alone. Instead, to estimate NO-related changes in the L-arginine and/or L-citrulline pools a form of tagging these metabolites for the NOS-mediated reaction is required. The application of stable isotopes is an elegant way to track NOS-mediated changes. The present paper is focussed on the application of various combinations of chromatography and mass spectrometry to measure isotopic enrichments resulting from the conversion of L-arginine to NO and L-citrulline in a one-to-one stoichiometry. In addition, the various aspects and principles involved in the application of stable isotopes in metabolic studies in general and the study of the activity of NOS in particular are discussed.     

Methods of quantitative analysis of the nitric oxide metabolites nitrite and nitrate in human biological fluids

In human organism, the gaseous radical molecule nitric oxide (NO) is produced in various cells from L-arginine by the catalytic action of NO synthases (NOS). The metabolic fate of NO includes oxidation to nitrate by oxyhaemoglobin in red blood cells and autoxidation in haemoglobin-free media to nitrite. Nitrate and nitrite circulate in blood and are excreted in urine. The concentration of these NO metabolites in the circulation and in the urine can be used to measure NO synthesis in vivo under standardized low-nitrate diet. Circulating nitrite reflects constitutive endothelial NOS activity, whereas excretory nitrate indicates systemic NO production. Today, nitrite and nitrate can be measured in plasma, serum and urine of humans by various analytical methods based on different analytical principles, such as colorimetry, spectrophotometry, fluorescence, chemiluminescence, gas and liquid chromatography, electrophoresis and mass spectrometry. The aim of the present article is to give an overview of the most significant currently used quantitative methods of analysis of nitrite and nitrate in human biological fluids, namely plasma and urine. With minor exception, measurement of nitrite and nitrate by these methods requires method-dependent chemical conversion of these anions. Therefore, the underlying mechanisms and principles of these methods are also discussed. Despite the chemical simplicity of nitrite and nitrate, accurate and interference-free quantification of nitrite and nitrate in biological fluids as indicators of NO synthesis may be difficult. Thus, problems associated with dietary and laboratory ubiquity of these anions and other preanalytical and analytical factors are addressed. Eventually, the important issue of quality control, the use of commercially available assay kits, and the value of the mass spectrometry methodology in this area are outlined.     

The reaction of nitrite with the haemocyanin of the Roman snail (Helix pomatia).

The reaction of nitrite at pH 5.0-7.0 with the deoxyhaemocyanin of a mollusc, the Roman snail (Helix pomatia), yielded nitrosylhaemocyanin (CuIA.NO+ CuIIB), in contrast with the formation of methaemocyanin with the deoxyhaemocyanin of the crustacean Astacus leptodactylus (mud crayfish). With Helix haemocyanin 1 NO was thereby liberated per active site, as shown by m.s., as against 2 NO with Astacus haemocyanin. Helix nitrosylhaemocyanin was characterized in c.d. by the negative extremum at 336 nm (CuIA.NO+) and by the mononuclear e.p.r. signal at g = 2 (CuIIB). Binuclear e.p.r. signals have been observed after the addition of nitrite to methaemocyanins. With Astacus methaemocyanin, no further reaction occurred, whereas with Helix methaemocyanin the mononuclear e.p.r. signal, characteristic for nitrosylhaemocyanin gradually appeared. This formation of Helix nitrosylhaemocyanin implicates the binding, most likely on CuIIA, of a second nitrite besides a bridging nitrite, so that a dismutation into NO and NO2 can occur there. A further dismutation of NO2 yields nitrite and nitrate. The formation of the latter was demonstrated by Raman spectrometry. The reaction rate of Helix methaemocyanin with nitrite decreased with increasing pH according to the Henderson-Hasselbalch equation with a pKa value of 6.77, attributed to a mu-aquo bridging ligand, which can be exchanged for nitrite, in equilibrium with a mu-hydroxo ligand which cannot. These data also favour the formulation of the final reaction product as nitrosylhaemocyanin instead of semi-methaemocyanin, with or without bound nitrite.