Methyltrophic enzyme distribution in Methylosinus trichosporium.

Key enzymes involved in the oxidation and fixation of methane by Methylosinus trichosporium were examined for localization within the bacterial cells. A differential centrifugation scheme following cell disruption was used to provide membrane and soluble fractions for the enzyme assays. All the methylotrophic enzymes examined were found to be soluble with this fractionation scheme. Electron transport involving a cytochrome c2 with absorption peaks at 416, 522, and 550 nm and oxidative phosphorylation were found in the membrane fractions. Mixed soluble and membrane fractions coupled the oxidation of emthanol and formate with cytochrome reduction.     

Structure of Methylosinus trichosporium exospores

Methylosinus trichosporium exospores did not display a well-defined cortex or an exosporium. A thick, electron-dense exospore wall was characteristic of the exospores. Located on the exterior of the exospore wall was a cell wall to which a well-defined capsule was attached. An extensive lamellar intracytoplasmic membrane system characteristic of the kind in vegetative cells of this bacterium was present along the interior periphery of the exospore wall. Upon germination of M. trichosporium exospores, the thick exospore wall gradually disappeared and a germ tube formed. The intracytoplasmic membranes of the exospores extended into the germ tube which did not possess the extensive fibrillar capsule observed on the dormant exospore. Cup-shaped exospores which have an ultrastructure similar to that of mature exospores except that they are invaginated also germinated upon exposure to methane.     

Specific inhibitors of methane oxidation in Methylosinus trichosporium

Methane oxidation by washed cell suspensions of Methylosinus trichosporium OB3B was selectively inhibited by 25 compounds, including metal binding components such as carbon monoxide (85% O₂: 15% CO), KCN (10^-6 M), αα′-dipyridyl (10^-4 M), 8-quinolinol (10^-4 M), thiosemicarbazide (10^-5 M), thiourea (10^-5 M), hydroxylamine (10^-4 M), histidine (10^-2 M), British Anti-Lewisite (5x10^-3 M), and miscellaneous known inhibitors of other oxygenases. A role for copper in the methane oxygenase system was suggested by the pattern of inhibition and relief of inhibition by added metal ions.     

Copper-Binding Compounds from Methylosinus trichosporium OB3b

Two copper-binding compounds/cofactors (CBCs) were isolated from the spent media of both the wild type and a constitutive soluble methane monooxygenase (sMMO^C) mutant, PP319 (P. A. Phelps et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 58:3701–3708, 1992), of Methylosinus trichosporium OB3b. Both CBCs are small polypeptides with molecular masses of 1,218 and 779 Da for CBC-L₁ and CBC-L₂, respectively. The amino acid sequence of CBC-L₁ is S?MYPGS?M, and that of CBC-L₂ is SPMP?S. Copper-free CBCs showed absorption maxima at 204, 275, 333, and 356 with shoulders at 222 and 400 nm. Copper-containing CBCs showed a broad absorption maximum at 245 nm. The low-temperature electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectra of copper-containing CBC-L₁ showed the presence of a copper center with an EPR splitting constant between those of type 1 and type 2 copper centers (g_⊥ = 2.087, g_∥ = 2.42 G, |A_∥| = 128 G). The EPR spectrum of CBC-L₂ was more complex and showed two spectrally distinct copper centers. One signal can be attributed to a type 2 Cu²⁺ center (g_⊥ = 2.073, g_∥ = 2.324 G, |A_∥| = 144 G) which could be saturated at higher powers, while the second shows a broad, nearly isotropic signal near g_⊥ = 2.063. In wild-type strains, the concentrations of CBCs in the spent media were highest in cells expressing the pMMO and stressed for copper. In contrast to wild-type strains, high concentrations of CBCs were observed in the extracellular fraction of the sMMO^C mutants PP319 and PP359 regardless of the copper concentration in the culture medium.In methanotrophs, the relationship between the concentration of copper and expression of the two different methane monooxygenases (MMOs) is well characterized (8, 11, 45, 49, 50). Under low copper-to-biomass ratios, methane oxidation activity is observed in the soluble fraction, and the enzyme is referred to as the soluble methane monooxygenase (sMMO). At higher copper-to-biomass ratios, methane oxidation activity is observed in the membrane fraction, and the enzyme is referred to as the membrane-associated or particulate methane monooxygenase (pMMO). The polypeptides and structural genes for both enzymes have been characterized (4, 18–22, 24, 25, 32, 34–40, 43–45, 47–49, 51, 62, 63). In addition to expression of the two MMOs, four other physiological traits have been identified in cells expressing the pMMO that are affected by the copper concentration in the culture medium. First, the concentration of copper in the culture media is directly related to pMMO activity in cell-free fractions, although the levels of expression of pMMO polypeptides vary in different methanotrophs (1, 8, 30, 36, 50, 63). For example, the expression levels of the three pMMO polypeptides in Methylococcus capsulatus Bath remained constant with varying copper concentrations (8, 36), whereas in Methylomicrobium albus BG8, the expression level of the putative pMMO polypeptides increased with increased copper in the culture medium (8). Second, the concentrations of membrane-associated copper and iron show a proportional increase as the copper concentration in the culture medium is increased (36, 63). Third, the formation and level of intracytoplasmic membranes in cells cultured in copper-supplemented media are dependent on the copper concentration in the culture media (8, 11, 40, 48). Lastly, the K_s for methane oxidation by pMMO is altered by the copper concentration in the culture media (33a).Berson and Lidstrom (1) have recently noted that in spite of the central role of copper in the physiology of methanotrophs, the mechanism(s) of copper acquisition remains vague. Although true, a few studies have suggested the existence of a specific copper acquisition system in M. capsulatus Bath and M. trichosporium OB3b. The first indication of a specific copper uptake system was provided from phenotypic characterization of the constitutive sMMO mutants (sMMO^C) isolated by Phelps et al. (42). Fitch et al. (17) found that in M. trichosporium OB3b, these sMMO^C mutants were defective in copper uptake and showed preliminary evidence for an extracellular copper-complexing agent. Working with the same mutants, Téllez et al. partially purified this copper-complexing agent and determined that it was a small molecule with a molecular mass of approximately 500 Da with an association constant with copper of 1.4 × 10¹⁶ M⁻¹ (55). Other evidence for a specific copper uptake system was provided by the copper-binding cofactor (CBC) from M. capsulatus Bath (63). During the isolation of the pMMO from M. capsulatus Bath, CBC was identified in association with the purified enzyme, in the washed membrane fraction, and in the extracellular fraction. The CBC was determined to be a small polypeptide with a molecular mass of 1,232 Da. In M. capsulatus Bath, the cellular location of the CBC varied depending on the copper concentration in the culture medium and on the expression of the pMMO.This paper ties together and extends these observations on specific copper acquisition systems in M. trichosporium OB3b and M. capsulatus Bath. Here we describe the initial isolation and characterization of two copper-complexing agents, called CBC-L₁ and CBC-L₂, from the M. trichosporium OB3b wild type and sMMO^C mutant PP319. CBC-L₁ from M. trichosporium OB3b was identical to the CBC previously identified during the isolation of the pMMO from M. capsulatus Bath. This paper is also the first report of a second CBC, CBC-L₂, which may have been present as a contaminant in previous CBC preparations from M. capsulatus Bath. One or both of the CBCs appear to be the same copper-complexing agent partially purified by Téllez et al. (55). Lastly, this report describes the effect of the copper concentration in the culture medium on copper uptake, the expression of both MMOs, and extracellular concentration of the CBC in wild-type and sMMO^C mutant strains of M. trichosporium OB3b.     

甲烷氧化细菌Methylosinus trichosporium 3011甲醇累积条件的研究

本文考察了甲烷氧化细菌Methylosi nus trichosporium 3011的生理特性及反应条件对甲烷单加氧酶和甲醇累积的影响。M.3011菌株在4℃保存30～40天内,菌株的细胞生长量和甲烷单加氧酶活性均不受影响。在生长对数期收获细胞,其甲烷单加氧酶活力最高可达125nmol甲醇/mg(细胞干重)·min。在M.3011菌株的生长对数期后期收集细胞,将反应菌悬液浓度控制在0.15—0.3mg(细胞干重/ml,pH为6.7,反应温度为35℃,甲醇累积量可达3.1μmol甲醇/mg(细胞干重)·h。反应液的磷酸缓冲液的最适浓度为60mmol/L。     

Ultrastruct of Methylosinus trichosporium as revealed by freeze etching.

The methane-oxidizing bacterium Methylosinus trichosporium forms extensive intracytoplasmic membranes that lie near the cell periphery and paralled to it. These membranes enclose cavities within the cytoplasm and exist as flattened, balloon-like vesicles. The internal membranes are passed along to both cells during budding. The bacteria accumulate poly-beta-hydroxybutyrate granules that lie in the center of the cells, neither within the internal membrane vesicles nor attached to them. Intercellular bridges result in the formation of chains of bacteria two to four cells in length.     

Biodegradation of trichloroethylene by Methylosinus trichosporium OB3b.

The methanotroph Methylosinus trichosporium OB3b, a type II methanotroph, degraded trichloroethylene at rates exceeding 1.2 mmol/h per g (dry weight) following the appearance of soluble methane monooxygenase in continuous and batch cultures. Cells capable oxidizing trichloroethylene contained components of soluble methane monooxygenase as demonstrated by Western blot (immunoblot) analysis with antibodies prepared against the purified enzyme. Growth of cultures in a medium containing 0.25 microM or less copper sulfate caused derepression of the synthesis of soluble methane monooxygenase. In these cultures, the specific rates of methane and methanol oxidation did not change during growth, while trichloroethylene oxidation increased with the appearance of soluble methane monooxygenase. M. trichosporium OB3b cells that contained soluble methane monooxygenase also degraded vinyl chloride, 1,1-dichloroethylene, cis-1,2-dichloroethylene, and trans-1,2-dichloroethylene.     

Whole-cell and membrane lipids of the methylotrophic bacterium Methylosinus trichosporium.

The lipid composition of the methylotrophic bacterium Methylosinus trichosporium was examined. Whole-cell lipid distribution was 39.1% neutral lipids, 34.5% polar lipids, and 26.4% poly-beta-hydroxybutyric acid. Membrane lipids were 83% phospholipids, with phosphatidylethanolamine and phosphatidylglycerol accounting for over 94% of the total. All the phospholipids had similar fatty acid compositions, with 18:1 accounting for about 87% of the total and most of the rest consisting of 16:1. Similarities between the lipid composition of this bacterium and other bacteria are discussed.     

Oxidation of aromatic alcohols by purified methanol dehydrogenase from Methylosinus trichosporium.

Methanol dehydrogenase was found to be present in subcellular preparations of methanol-grown Methylosinus trichosporium and occurred almost wholly in the soluble fraction of the cell. The enzyme, purified by DEAE-Sephadex and Sephadex G-100 chromatography, showed broad specificity toward different substrates and oxidized the aromatic alcohols benzyl, vanillyl, and veratryl alcohols in addition to a range of aliphatic primary alcohols. No enzyme activity was found toward the corresponding aldehydes of the alcohols tested. The Km for methanol was 50 microM, and that for the aromatic alcohols was in the range of 1 to 2 mM. EDTA and p-nitrophenylhydrazine, which are inhibitors of methanol oxidation in whole cells of methylotrophs, had little effect on activity of the purified enzyme. The results now extend the range of substrates oxidized by methanol dehydrogenase to include the aromatic alcohols.     

Nitrite and nitrous oxide production by Methylosinus trichosporium

Conditions for the production of nitrite and nitrous oxide by an obligate methanotroph, Methylosinus trichosporium (OB 3b), were studied. The rate of nitrite production (V NO2-) was correlated with the concentration of ammonia up to 20 mM in the presence of sufficient amounts of oxygen and inversely correlated with the amounts of methane in the system. The rate of nitrous oxide (N2O) production (V N2O) was correlated positively with V NO2- and the amount of nitrite produced and inversely with the oxygen concentration in the system. Nitrite started to disappear when either oxygen or methane or both were depleted, but only a part of the loss could be accounted for by an increase in N2O. Maximum rates of nitrite and N2O production by Ms. trichosporium were 6.9 X 10(-16) and 2.2 X 10(-17) mol . cell-1 X day-1, respectively. These values are about 0.2 and 1.6% of the values for Nitrosomonas europaea. Therefore, production of nitrite and N2O by methanotrophs in aquatic environments may not be as significant as that of Nitrosomonas.     

Formate dehydrogenase from the methane oxidizer Methylosinus trichosporium OB3b.

Formate dehydrogenase (NAD+ dependent) was isolated from the obligate methanotroph Methylosinus trichosporium OB3b. When the enzyme was isolated anaerobically, two forms of the enzyme were seen on native polyacrylamide gels, DE-52 cellulose and Sephacryl S-300 columns; they were approximately 315,000 and 155,000 daltons. The enzyme showed two subunits on sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gels. The Mr of the alpha-subunit was 53,800 +/- 2,800, and that of the beta-subunit was 102,600 +/- 3,900. The enzyme (Mr 315,000) was composed of these subunits in an apparent alpha 2 beta 2 arrangement. Nonheme iron was present at a concentration ranging from 11 to 18 g-atoms per mol of enzyme (Mr 315,000). Similar levels of acid-labile sulfide were detected. No other metals were found in stoichiometric amounts. When the enzyme was isolated aerobically, there was no cofactor requirement for NAD reduction; however, when isolated anaerobically, activity was 80 to 90% dependent on the addition of flavin mononucleotide (FMN) to the reaction mixture. Furthermore, the addition of formate to an active, anoxic solution of formate dehydrogenase rapidly inactivated it in the absence of an electron acceptor; this activity could be reconstituted approximately 85% by 50 nM FMN. Flavin adenine dinucleotide could not replace FMN in reconstituting enzyme activity. The Kms of formate dehydrogenase for formate, NAD, and FMN were 146, 200, and 0.02 microM, respectively. "Pseudomonas oxalaticus" formate dehydrogenase, which has physical characteristics nearly identical to those of the M. trichosporium enzyme, was also shown to be inactivated under anoxic conditions by formate and reactivated by FMN. The evolutionary significance of this similarity is discussed.     

Biodegradation of trichloroethylene by Methylosinus trichosporium OB3b

The methanotroph Methylosinus trichosporium OB3b, a type II methanotroph, degraded trichloroethylene at rates exceeding 1.2 mmol/h per g (dry weight) following the appearance of soluble methane monooxygenase in continuous and batch cultures. Cells capable oxidizing trichloroethylene contained components of soluble methane monooxygenase as demonstrated by Western blot (immunoblot) analysis with antibodies prepared against the purified enzyme. Growth of cultures in a medium containing 0.25 microM or less copper sulfate caused derepression of the synthesis of soluble methane monooxygenase. In these cultures, the specific rates of methane and methanol oxidation did not change during growth, while trichloroethylene oxidation increased with the appearance of soluble methane monooxygenase. M. trichosporium OB3b cells that contained soluble methane monooxygenase also degraded vinyl chloride, 1,1-dichloroethylene, cis-1,2-dichloroethylene, and trans-1,2-dichloroethylene.     

Phenotypic characterization of copper-resistant mutants of Methylosinus trichosporium OB3b.

Cultures of Methylosinus trichosporium OB3b grown in the presence of very low concentrations of copper synthesize a soluble methane monooxygenase (sMMO) that efficiently catalyzes the oxidation of trichloroethylene and other organic pollutants. Recently, we isolated five M. trichosporium OB3b mutants that express sMMO activity when grown in the presence of elevated copper concentrations (P.A. Phelps, S. K. Agarwal, G. E. Speitel, Jr., and G. Georgiou, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 58:3701-3708, 1992). Here we show that, in contrast to the results for the wild-type cells, the addition of copper to mutant cultures grown on methane and nitrate as the nitrogen source has no noticeable effect on the growth rate and sMMO expression. In vitro experiments indicated that the copper-resistant phenotype does not arise from an increased stability of sMMO to copper deactivation. Furthermore, the mutant cultures exhibit altered speciation of copper in the extracellular fluid and have substantially decreased levels of cell-associated copper. On the basis of these results, we propose that the mutant phenotype arises from defects in copper uptake and metabolism rather than from changes in sMMO expression or enzyme stability.     

Degradation of dimethyl nitrosamine by Methylosinus trichosporium OB3b

The degradation of dimethyl nitrosoamine (DMNA) by a methanotroph, Methylosinus trichosporium OB3b, was studied using 14C-labelled DMNA. The organism was capable of assimilating DMNA-carbon and converting it to CO2. The rates of CO2 production (VCO2) from DMNA and its cellular uptake (VP) were linearly correlated with DMNA concentrations of 0.03-10 mM, which corresponded to approximately 3% of added DMNA metabolized in 24 h. These rates were two to three orders of magnitude less than the rate of uptake of methane (VCH4. VCH4 was suppressed when the concentrations of DMNA exceeded 0.3 mM. In the presence of 0.1 mM DMNA, VP and VCO2 were essentially the same in the presence or absence of methane in the first 8 h of incubation, but declined sharply thereafter only when methane was absent. These observations suggest that the metabolism of DMNA was carried out by methane monooxygenase (MMO), and that NADH, a cofactor for MMO, may be provided by the oxidation of the stored compounds in the cells when methane is not available.     

Methane monooxygenase mutants of Methylosinus trichosporium constructed by marker-exchange mutagenesis

Abstract Methylosinus trichosporium OB3b synthesizes a soluble cytoplasmic methane monooxygenase when grown in copper-depleted medium and a membrane-bound particulate methane monooxygenase under copper-replete conditions. The genes encoding the hydroxylase component of soluble methane monooxygenase, carried on a plasmid in Escherichia coli , were insertionally inactivated using a kanamycin cassette and transferred back into M. trichosporium by conjugation. Marker-exchange mutagenesis, via a double homologous recombination event, yielded a soluble methane monooxygenase-negative mutant which grew only on methane using the particulate methane monooxygenase during copper-replete growth conditions, thus proving that the two methane oxidation systems in this methanotroph are genetically distinct.     

Particulate methane monooxygenase from Methylosinus trichosporium is a copper-containing enzyme

Particulate methane monooxygenase (pMMO) has been exfoliated and isolated from membranes of the Methylosinus trichosporium IMV 3011. It appears that the stability of pMMO in the exfoliation process is increased with increasing copper concentration in the growth medium, but extensive intracytoplasmic membrane formed under higher copper concentration may inhibit the exfoliation of active pMMO from membrane. The highest total activity of purified pMMO is obtained with an initial concentration of 6 microM Cu in the growth medium. The purified MMO contains only copper and does not utilize NADH as electron donor. Treatment of purified pMMO with EDTA resulted in little change in copper level, suggesting that the copper in the pMMO is tightly bound with pMMO.     

Inhibition of dimethyl ether and methane oxidation in Methylococcus capsulatus and Methylosinus trichosporium.

Metal-chelating or -binding agents inhibited the oxidation of dimethyl ether and methane, but not methanol, by cell suspensions of Methylococcus capsulatus and Methylosinus trichosporium. Evidence suggests that the involvement of metal-containing enzymatic systems in the initial step of oxidation of dimethyl ether and methane.