Barricade building in Ilyoplax pusillus (De Haan) (Crustacea : Brachyura)

Ilyoplax pusillus (De Haan, 1835) was sometimes found to build an earthen structure, termed a barricade, close to its neighbour's burrow. Most barricaders were males > 6.4 mm in carapace width. Either males or females were barricaded and almost all of them were smaller than their barricaders. Burrow to burrow distance between a barricader and its barricaded neighbour ranged from 1.6 to 7.2 cm. The home range of a barricaded crab was biased toward the areas devoid of the barricade, i.e. to other directions than the barricader's burrow, in either the presence or absence of the barricader. When a barricade was removed, the crab freed from it extended its home range towards the barricader's burrow. If the crab freed from a barricade moved towards the barricader, the former was frequently repelled by the latter. These findings suggest that barricades function as an aid to territorial defence by deterring invasion by a neighbour.     

The dynamics of predation on Gammarus spp. (Crustacea: Amphipoda)

Gammarus spp. (Crustacea: Amphipoda) are widespread throughout a diverse range of marine, freshwater and estuarine/brackish habitats, often dominating benthic macroinvertebrate communities in terms of both numbers and/or biomass. Gammarus spp. are the dominant macroinvertebrate prey items of many fish, whether as a seasonal food source or a year-round staple. Selective predation by fish on Gammarus spp. is often linked to parasitism and the body size of the prey. Gammarus spp. populations are under increasing threat from both pollution and replacement/displacement by introduced species. Loss of populations and species invasions/replacements could have significant impacts on native predator species if the predator(s) cannot successfully adapt their feeding patterns to cope with non-indigenous Gammarus prey species. Despite this, many fish predation studies do not identify Gammarus prey to species level. This lack of precision could be important, as Gammarus spp. exhibit wide variations in physiochemical tolerances, habitat requirements, abilities to invade and susceptibility to replacement. Although rarely acknowledged, the impacts of nonpiscean predators (particularly macroinvertebrates) on Gammarus prey species may frequently be stronger than those exerted by fish. A major aim of this review is to ascertain the current importance of Gammarus as a prey species, such that the implications of changes in Gammarus spp. populations can be more accurately assessed by interested groups such as ecologists and fisheries managers. We also review the dynamics of Gammarus spp. as prey to a diverse array of mammals, birds, amphibians, insects, flatworms, other crustaceans such as crabs and crayfish and, perhaps most importantly, other Gammarus spp.     

Pair formation in the two forms ofMacrophthalmus japonicus De Haan (Crustacea: Brachyura) at a co-occurring area

Pair formation in 2 forms ofMacrophthalmus japonicus was observed where both occurred sympatrically. Both forms showed 2 types of sexual behavior leading to either (1) surface copulations or (2) entry into the male's burrow. In the latter, the 2 forms differed according to which sex entered the burrow first. In all observations, pair formations were confined to members of the same form. These results suggest that the 2 forms are reproductively isolated from one another.     

On the marine sister groups of the freshwater crabs (Crustacea: Decapoda: Brachyura)

Freshwater crab sister group relationships with marine eubrachyuran families were investigated. A morphology-based cladistic analysis was conducted on representatives of the freshwater crab families Deckeniidae, Gecarcinucidae, Parathelphusidae, Potamidae, Potamonautidae, Pseudothelphusidae, and Trichodactylidae using a disparate assemblage of marine heterotreme and thoracotreme brachyurans as possible sister groups. The monophyly of the freshwater crabs sensu lato is falsified. The family Trichodactylidae and the marine portunid subfamily Carcininae form basal groups within the superfamily Portunoidea. The monophyly of the Pseudothelphusidae and the Paleotropical freshwater crab families is supported, and this clade is the sister group of the Thoracotremata (Gecarcinidae, Grapsidae s.l., and Ocypodoidea). The origin, groundplan, and diversification of freshwater crabs are discussed in the context of previously published scenarios of their evolution.     

The effect of calcium concentration on the crushing resistance, weight and size of Biomphalaria sudanica (Gastropoda: Planorbidae)

Biomphalaria sudanica (intermediate host of Schistosoma mansoni) were raised in the laboratory in media with seven different calcium concentrations ranging from 0.02 to 2.0 mmol/l. After 10 weeks, snails were killed and shell diameter, inorganic dry weight, ash free dry weight and crushing resistance were measured. Snails raised at lower calcium concentrations were found to be significantly smaller than snails raised at higher concentrations. Furthermore, relatively thinner shells were developed at low concentrations and crushing resistance relative to snail size was found to be lower for these snails. The ratio between crushing resistance and ash free dry weight (as a measure for the energetic cost/benefit-ratio) was also found to be correlated with calcium concentration. The relevance of the results for predation risk of B. sudanica is discussed.     

A comparative study of zoeal morphology in the genus Liocarcinus (Crustacea: Brachyura: Portunidae)

The zoeal morphology of Liocarcinus arcuatus, L. corrugatus and L. depurator is described from laboratory reared material and the larvae of L. holsatus, L. puber, L. pusillus and L. marmoreus are reexamined from specimens deposited in the BM (NH). No single meristic character was found that would adequately separate the seven described species of Liocarcinus. Characters that may facilitate separation of later zoeal stages only are listed.     

Feeding activity of Callinectes ornatus Ordway, 1863 and Callinectes danae Smith, 1869 (Crustacea, Brachyura, Portunidae) in Ubatuba, SP, Brazil

The feeding activity along the day cycle and the time consumed for extracellular digestion were evaluated in the portunids C. ornatus and C. danae. Swimming crabs were obtained from trawling in Ubatuba bay, São Paulo, Brazil, during both the rainy and dry seasons. In each season, daily scheduled samples were taken at dawn (±6 h), noon (±12 h), dusk (±18 h) and midnight (±24 h). All individuals were dissected and the degree of stomach replenishment was recorded. In order to estimate the time elapsed for extracellular digestion, crabs were fed, and groups were dissected at 30 min intervals to check the conditions of their stomachs. In general, both species show a higher feeding activity during periods of lower light intensity, as evidenced by an increased percentage of full stomachs in dusk and midnight samples. The obtained results support higher feeding activity at night in these species and indicate short time for extracellular digestion, not exceeding 8 h. Nevertheless, full stomachs were recorded in all sampling schedules. In this case, it should be considered that elimination of certain food items such as fish bones, mollusk shells and carapace fragments of crustaceans could take more time than other items. Additionally, some crab species could require a cycle of cell replacement in the midgut gland epithelium until they can take their next meal.     

Selective predation by larval Agabus (Coleoptera: Dytiscidae) on mosquitoes: support for conservation-based mosquito suppression in constructed wetlands

1. Wetland insect predators can structure aquatic prey communities via selective predation, but receive considerably less attention than vertebrate predators. We conducted laboratory experiments to test selective predation by two species of larval dytiscid beetles ( Agabus ; Coleoptera: Dytiscidae) and the potential contribution of these beetles to suppression of mosquito populations in constructed wetlands.
2.  Agabus consumed copepods, ostracods and mosquito larvae in no-choice tests. When offered a choice, 76% of all prey consumed were mosquito larvae, indicating selective predation. Subsequent experiments revealed this preference was due to ease of capture of mosquito larvae over alternative prey.
3. Cannibalism and intraguild predation were common within and between species of Agabus , which may reduce the overall impact of the observed selective predation.
4.  Agabus larvae selectively preyed on mosquito larvae over alternative prey, which is not characteristic of some fish used as biological control agents for mosquitoes. Predator exclusion or similar experiments in the field could document how these results translate into a natural setting.
5. The findings of this study suggest developing mosquito suppression strategies focused on conservation of native wetland predators. These strategies are preferable to introducing non-native generalist predators, or applying pesticides.     

Mortality by moonlight: predation risk and the snowshoe hare

Optimal behavior theory suggests that prey animals will reduceactivity during intermittent periods when elevated predationrisk outweighs the fitness benefits of activity. Specifically,the predation risk allocation hypothesis predicts that preyactivity should decrease dramatically at times of high predationrisk if there is high temporal variation in predation risk butshould remain relatively uniform when temporal variation inpredation risk is low. To test these predictions we examinedthe seasonably variable response of snowshoe hares to moonlightand predation risk. Unlike studies finding uniform avoidanceof moonlight in small mammals, we find that moonlight avoidanceis seasonal and corresponds to seasonal variation in moonlightintensity. We radio-collared 177 wild snowshoe hares to estimatepredation rates as a measure of risk and used movement distancesfrom a sample of those animals as a measure of activity. Inthe snowy season, 5-day periods around full moons had 2.5 timesmore predation than around new moons, but that ratio of theincreased predation rate was only 1.8 in the snow-free season.There was no significant increase in use of habitats with morehiding cover during full moons. Snowshoe hares' nightly movementdistances decreased during high-risk full-moon periods in thesnowy season but did not change according to moon phase in thesnow-free season. These results are consistent with the predationrisk allocation hypothesis.     

Polymorphic microsatellite markers of freshwater prawn Palaemon paucidens (De Haan, 1844) (Crustacea: Palaemonidae)

We report 11 polymorphic microsatellite loci developed from the freshwater prawn Palaemon paucidens. Their genetic characteristics were assessed in 48 individuals selected from six Korean populations. The number of alleles ranged from two to 21, and the observed and expected heterozygosities were between 0.13 and 0.83, and 0.46 and 0.95, respectively. We examined the cross-specific amplification of each locus in three species of palaemonid prawn and one species of atyid prawn.     

Characterization of the conspecific metamorphic cue for Hemigrapsus sanguineus (De Haan)

The Asian shore crab, Hemigrapsus sanguineus, is one of the most abundant invasive crabs along the east coast of the United States. Larval stages are generally planktonic, but the megalopa stage settles to the substratum near the time of metamorphosis. Reducing the time to metamorphosis may result in higher recruitment and survival. Previous work has shown that a water-soluble cue produced by adult H. sanguineus can induce metamorphosis of conspecific megalopae. Here we report the results of experiments in which megalopae were exposed to cues produced by different life stages of H. sanguineus. We also provide data from experiments that investigated the temporal stability, detection threshold, and chemical classification of the cue. Our results indicate that an active cue is produced by juveniles as well as adults. The cue is proteinaceous and begins to degrade within 2 days of production. The threshold for detection of the cue by megalopae lies between 0.1 and 0.01 µg of protein per ml.     

Geographic and gender shape differences in the carapace of Liocarcinus depurator (Brachyura: Portunidae) using geometric morphometrics and the influence of a digitizing method

The current work describes the use of geometric morphometrics in the study of the portunid crab Liocarcinus depurator carapace shape variation along the Mediterranean coast of Spain. As a first step, the differences in shape induced by digitizing the carapace with either a digital camera or a flat bed scanner were investigated. Carapace shape information inferred from the camera images proved different from that obtained from the scanner images. This difference was greater than any shape variation because of crab gender or sample location. Carapace shape was analysed using multiple analysis of covariance (with centroid size as a covariate) of the partial warps and uniform components indicating differences between genders and between sample location; however, significant three-way interaction implied that such differences were gender and location specific. Landmarks identifying carapace width, carapace length and posterior carapace width showed greatest variation; hence gender and location differences were further analysed through the interrelationships between these linear measures. Regression analysis of the relationship between posterior carapace width and the ratio of carapace width to carapace length indicated clear differences between locations but not between genders. Crabs from the Alborán Sea had proportionally wider posterior carapaces than those from Alicante or North Catalonia. This finding may represent the difference between a southern influx of an Atlantic population distinguishable from a more northerly Mediterranean one, which would be in agreement with the overall oceanographic surface circulation pattern in the western Mediterranean.     

Locomotory rhythms and burrowing habits of Penaeus semisulcatus (de Haan) and P. Monodon (Fabricius) (Crustacea: Penaeidae)

The locomotor activity of adult Penaeus semisulcatus (de Haan) and P. monodon (Fabricius) has been studied. The former was reared entirely, and the latter partly under artificial conditions. Both species display circadian activity rhythms in response to light entrainment. Light appears to be a major synchronizer, although the results indicate that feeding also has a certain synchronizing effect in starved prawns.The expression of endogenous activity rhythms in both species is affected by their substratum requirements and burrowing habits. Choice experiments show that both P. semisulcatus and P. monodon select a fine grade sand for burrowing, although the burrowing frequency of the latter species is always low. In a non-choice situation, P. semisulcatus will readily enter a coarse substratum whereas P. monodon will very seldom do so.The effects of various light regimes on the activity patterns of P. semisulcatus and P. monodon were examined and the results show that for both species an imposed long photoperiod regime (18:6 LD) induced 6-h periods of brief but intense activity, alternating with 18-h periods of almost complete inactivity. This activity pattern is discussed in relation to feeding and energy expenditure.     

Reproductive biology of the Suez Canal spider crab Schizophrys aspera (H. Milne Edwards, 1834: Crustacea: Brachyura: Majidae)

A reproductive biology study of the spider crab Schizophrys aspera (H. Milne Edwards, 1834) was conducted in the Suez Canal from July 2012 to June 2013. The annual sex ratio (Male:Female) of S. aspera was female biased with values of 1:1.25. Out of the four ovarian development stages of this crab, two stages were observed in the Suez Canal throughout the whole year. The ovigerous crab’s carapace width varied from 28 to 52 mm. This crab species can spawn during most of the year in the canal water, with a peak during late spring and early winter. The fecundity of ovigerous females ranged between 2349 and 13600 eggs with a mean of 5494 ± 1486 eggs. Female crabs that reached sexual maturity exhibited a minimum carapace width varying between 22 and 46 mm, and fifty percentage of all ovigerous females showed a carapace width of 36 mm.     

Behavioural adaptations of the fiddler crabs Uca vocans borealis (crane) and Uca lactea lactea (De Haan) for coexistence on an intertidal shore

The distribution and coexistence of the fiddler crabs U. vocans borealis and U. lactea lactea was investigated in the upper shore of a sandy beach with respect to particle size, water content and total organic carbon content of the sediments. A clear segregation of habitats between the two species was apparent. U. lactea lactea were only found in sediments with significantly lower total organic carbon content. U. lactea lactea had a higher ratio for the size of third maxilliped to body size than U. vocans borealis. There was no statistical difference in the median sediment particle size of the habitats where both species were found on the study shore. U. lactea lactea was larger on shores where U. vocans borealis were absent. Smaller U. vocans borealis individuals occupied sediments with higher water content and finer particles. Smaller individuals of U. vocans borealis also possessed fewer spoon-tipped setae on second maxilliped than their larger conspecifics, which were found mostly on coarser sediments. U. lactea lactea spent significantly more time on the surface than in the burrow during low tide when compared with U. vocans borealis. Both Uca species exhibited similar desiccation resistance. U. lactea lactea tends to keep its frontal region in close contact with sediments to maintain moisture when being exposed to air.     

Prey classification by an araneophagic ant-like jumping spider (Araneae: Salticidae)

What to attack is one of the most basic decisions predators must make, and these decisions are reliant upon the predator's sensory and cognitive capacity. Active choice of spiders as preferred prey, or araneophagy, has evolved in several distantly related spider families, including jumping spiders (Salticidae), but has never been demonstrated in ant-like jumping spiders. We used prey-choice tests with motionless lures to investigate prey-choice behaviour in Myrmarachne melanotarsa , an East African ant-like salticid that normally lives in aggregations and often associates with other spider species. We show that M . melanotarsa chooses spiders as prey in preference to insects and, furthermore, discriminates between different types of spiders. Myrmarachne melanotarsa 's preferred prey were juvenile hersiliids and its second most preferred were other salticids. To date, all documented examples of araneophagic salticids have been from the basal subfamily Spartaeinae. Myrmarachne melanotarsa is the first non-spartaeine and also the first ant-like salticid for which araneophagy has been demonstrated.     

An acanthocephalan parasite mediates intraguild predation between invasive and native freshwater amphipods (Crustacea)

1. The balance of predation between closely related invasive and native species can be an important determinant of the success or failure of biological invasions. In Irish freshwaters, the introduced amphipod Gammarus pulex has replaced the native G. duebeni celticus, possibly through differential mutual intraguild predation (IGP). Theoretically, parasitism could mediate such predation and hence the invasion outcome. However, this idea remains poorly studied. 2. In a field survey, we show that the acanthocephalan parasite Echinorynchus truttae is present in more G. pulex populations than G. d. celticus populations. In addition, within parasitised populations, E. truttae is more prevalent in the invader than in the native. 3. We show for the first time that an acanthocephalan parasite mediates predation between its intermediate macroinvertebrate hosts. In a field experiment, E. truttae parasitism of the invader lowered IGP upon the unparasitised native. In laboratory experiments, parasitism of G. pulex significantly reduced their predatory impact on recently moulted female G. d. celticus. Parasitism also appeared to cause reduction in predatory behaviour, such as attacks per contact on precopula guarded female natives. 4. We conclude that higher parasite prevalence in invaders as compared with natives, by mediation of interspecific interactions, could promote species coexistence, or at least slow species replacements, in this particular biological invasion.     

Morphological characterization and molecular phylogeny of Portunoidea Rafinesque, 1815 (Crustacea Brachyura): Implications for understanding evolution of swimming capacity and revision of the family-level classification

Cheliped construction, in particular the teeth pattern on chelae fingers is considered as most important character suit (along with burrowing/swimming apparatus) for the diagnosis of Portunoidea. Heterochelic and heterodontic chelipeds with the molariform tooth in the larger chela and multi-lobed serial teeth are presumably ancestral and most common pattern for the group. New material (mostly species of Thalamitinae Paulson, 1875, Lupocyclus Adamd and White, 1848 and Portunus Weber, 1795 sensu lato) have been combined with the existing sequences from the GenBank to produce molecular phylogenetic reconstructions based on the histone H3 gene fragment and a multi-gene tree (for smaller set of species) based on partial sequences of H3, D1 region of 28S gene and mitochondrial COI gene. These reconstructions have not provided necessary support to the monophyly of Portunoidea sensu lato but indicated the presence of several monophyletic lineages, i.e. Portunidae sensu stricto, Polybiidae + Thiidae + Carcinidae + Pirimelidae, Benthochascon + Geryonidae (to lesser extent), and Ovalipes. Monophyly of the Portunidae sensu stricto is supported by both the H3 and multigene trees and morphological evidence. Swimming capacity probably evolves as a result of parallel evolution in at least three different lineages of portunoids. A new version of the family level classification of Portunoidea and a key to their families are provided with the following taxa: Geryonidae (Geryoninae + Benthochasconinae subfam. nov.), Ovalipidae fam. nov., Brusiniidae Štev?i?, 1991, Thiidae, Pirimelidae, Carcinidae McLeay, 1838 (Carcininae + Portumninae Ortmann, 1893), Polybiidae Ortmann, 1893, and Portunidae Rafinesque, 1815 sensu stricto. The most radical change in the systematics of Portunidae sensu stricto is the final recognition of the polyphyly of Portunus sensu lato and the need for revalidization and re-diagnozing of several taxa that were synonymized by Stephenson and Campbell (1959) and Stephenson (1972) under Portunus. While some subfamilies of the Portunidae (Podophthalminae Dana, 1851, Thalamitinae, and Lupocyclinae Alcock, 1895) are well supported by molecular phylogenies and the presence of morphological synapomorphies, the others need re-assessment.