Dental eruption schedules of wild and captive baboons

Dental eruption schedules previously used to age wild baboons have in the past derived from studies of captive animals housed under standard conditions and fed standard laboratory diets. This paper reports for the first time eruption schedules derived from wild baboons, the yellow baboons (Papio hamadryas cynocephalus) of Mikumi National Park, Tanzania, and compares these schedules with those of other baboon subspecies inhabiting both similar and dissimilar environments. Eighteen males and twelve females from the Viramba groups, ranging in age from 21 to 103 months, were trapped, and dental impressions and notes were made of the state of eruption of each tooth. Eruption of all teeth were delayed at Mikumi relative to the baboon standards derived from the captive animals at the Southwest Foundation for Biomedical Research, San Antonio, Texas. Teeth of the canine-premolar 3 complex and third molars were most delayed, erupting up to a year and a half later than their counterparts from captive animals. Comparison with data on hamadryas baboons from Erer-Gota in Ethiopia revealed that both the hamadryas and yellow subspecies of baboons, with different genetic backgrounds and living under markedly different environmental conditions, followed the same schedule. This constancy of developmental schedules suggests that these Mikumi data may reasonably be used as standards for other wild baboon populations and that acceleration of dental maturation, as well us maturation of other somatic systems in captivity, is another manifestation of the short-term adaptive plasticity of the baboon species as a whole.     

The breeding and utilization of baboons for biomedical research.

The baboon (Papio cynocephalus) has been used extensively for biomedical research at the Southwest Foundation for Research and Education (SFRE) since 1958. This animal model has adapted well to captivity, has reproduced efficiently, and has proved to be very useful in many areas of medical research. Reproductive data from the SFRE baboon colony, the establishment of a breeding colony from imported animals, the present use of baboons as research models, and the predicted availability and use of these animals were discussed.     

Observations on spontaneous pathological lesions in chacma baboons (Papio ursinus)

Some pathological findings made in more than 3000 autopsies on Chacma baboons (Papio ursinus) are reviewed. Diarrhea is frequent among newcomers in the Primate Colony at the University of Stellenbosch and is possibly related to the stress of adaptation to captivity. Strict control of the water balance of sick animals prevents losses. In 63% of diarrheic baboons cortical adrenal necroses were found. About 10% of the autopsied baboons had a cardiomyopathy. In 50% of the baboons with necrotizing cardiomyopathy adrenal cortical necroses were found. In contrast to man, the Chacma baboon deposits inhaled inert dust in small granulomata similar to early cellular lesions of silicosis. Pyelonephritis unrelated to experimental procedures was found in 0.3%. Six cases of chronic glomerulonephritis were encountered. The inclusion of the lower parathyroids in the thyroid must be considered as a normal finding in Chacma baboons; thymic inclusions in the thyroid are more common than in man. On the whole, there are only minor differences in pathological reactions between Chacma baboon and man, but the former is much less resistant to stress than the latter.     

Tuberculosis (Mycobacterium tuberculosis) in a pregnant baboon (Papio cynocephalus)

BACKGROUND: Old World monkeys are considered more susceptible to tuberculosis (TB) than New World monkeys. Several cases of TB in baboons are described in the literature. The data regarding baboon reaction to the tuberculin skin test (TST) are controversial. Some authors described anergy in this species, while the others documented a positive reaction. CASE REPORT: An 8-year-old clinically healthy pregnant female baboon (Papio cynocephalus anubis) developed positive TST after 3 years of negative tests in captivity while not pregnant. Thoracic radiographs demonstrated three nodular densities in the lung. RESULTS: Histological examination of tracheobronchial lymph nodes revealed multiple coalescing pyogranulomas filled with caseonecrotic debris and mineralized foci with numerous large foreign body-type and Langhans-type multinucleated giant cells. The bacterial culture contained a slow growing Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex. CONCLUSIONS: We describe, to the best of our knowledge, the first case of a positive TST in a wild caught, pregnant baboon with latent infection after 3 years in captivity.     

Human–hamadryas baboon (Papio hamadryas) conflict in the Wonchit Valley,South Wollo,Ethiopia

Understanding the extent of human–primate conflict is crucial to the development of conservation and management strategies. We carried out this study in an unprotected area of central Ethiopia to examine the magnitude of human–hamadryas baboon (Papio hamadryas) conflict and to assess the attitude of local farmers towards baboons in Wonchit Valley. In 2014, we interviewed 119 adult respondents using a structured questionnaire. Local farmers considered hamadryas baboons to be the major pest in the area. All respondents reported that hamadryas baboons caused crop raiding and small livestock predation in the region. Respondents reported that a shortage of fruit producing wild trees and ready availability of crops were the main causes of conflict between farmers and hamadryas baboons. We found that hamadryas baboons damaged cereal crops at dusk and dawn during full moonlight, and most (89.9%) respondents claimed that they were not interested in hamadryas baboon conservation. Our results indicate that human–hamadryas baboon conflict has a strongly negative impact on both baboon conservation and local farmers. We suggest that to mitigate the human–hamadryas baboon conflict, job opportunities such as beekeeping should be introduced in the region.     

Cranial ontogeny of Papio baboons (Papio hamadryas)

Cranial form in subspecies of Papio baboons (Papio hamadryas) varies in relation to size, geography, and sex. However, knowledge about this variation is based mainly on adults, precluding direct assessments of the evolutionary factors that are ultimately responsible for adult shape variation. Consequently, this study tests hypotheses about the development of size and shape differences among subspecies of Papio baboons, anticipating limited evolutionary divergences in the ontogenetic pathways leading to adult endpoints. Geometric morphometric and bivariate allometric analyses are used to explore developmental size and shape variation. Allometric scaling in adult Papio baboons occurs because both sexes and all subspecies follow similar developmental pathways to a variety of adult forms. However, complex allometry contributes to form differences, producing potentially important shape differences that emerge during development. Modest shape differences that are statistically independent of size distinguish chacma baboons (P. h. ursinus) from other forms. A small-headed subspecies, the Kinda baboon (P. h. kindae), also presents a distinctive ontogeny, and may provide insights into the evolution of size change in this species. Variation among subspecies that is statistically independent of size involves the rostrum, zygomatic breadths, and cranial flexion. These features may be related to diet, but the precise biomechanical correlates of baboon form variation remain unclear.     

A field study of infection with human T-cell leukemia virus among African primates

African non-human primates were surveyed seroepidemiologically for natural infection of human T-cell leukemia virus type I (ATLV/HTLV-I) or its closely related virus(es). Materials from three genera (Cercopithecus, Papio, and Theropithecus), four species (grivet monkey, Anubis baboon, Hamadryas baboon, and gelada), totalling 983 animals under natural conditions, were obtained in a field study in Ethiopia. Virus infection was determined by the indirect immunofluorescence test using HTLV-I specific antigens. Animals seropositive for HTLV-I were found among grivet monkeys and Anubis baboons including the hybrid offspring between Anubis and Hamadryas baboons but not pure-Hamadryas baboons and geladas. From these results, the HTLV-I family was proved to be widespread on the African continent and was regarded as a common retrovirus among catarrhines.     

Infection of a yellow baboon with simian immunodeficiency virus from African green monkeys: evidence for cross-species transmission in the wild.

Many African primates are known to be naturally infected with simian immunodeficiency viruses (SIVs), but only a fraction of these viruses has been molecularly characterized. One primate species for which only serological evidence of SIV infection has been reported is the yellow baboon (Papio hamadryas cynocephalus). Two wild-living baboons with strong SIVAGM seroreactivity were previously identified in a Tanzanian national park where baboons and African green monkeys shared the same habitat (T. Kodama, D. P. Silva, M. D. Daniel, J. E. Phillips-Conroy, C. J. Jolly, J. Rogers, and R. C. Desrosiers, AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses 5:337-343, 1989). To determine the genetic identity of the viruses infecting these animals, we used PCR to examine SIV sequences directly in uncultured leukocyte DNA. Targeting two different, nonoverlapping genomic regions, we amplified and sequenced a 673-bp gag gene fragment and a 908-bp env gene fragment from one of the two baboons. Phylo-genetic analyses revealed that this baboon was infected with an SIVAGM strain of the vervet subtype. These results provide the first direct evidence for simian-to-simian cross-species transmission of SIV in the wild.     

Hand-rearing baboons for laboratory investigations

To conduct laboratory studies in unsedated animals that were similar anatomically and physiologically to man, five full term baboons (four Papio cynocephalus anubis, one Papio cynocephalus cynocephalus) were hand-reared. These infants were used as unsedated animal models in short-term lung clearance studies conducted from birth to 2 years of age. The hand-rearing techniques described here encouraged the formation of an infant-human rearer bond that permitted us to control the level of expressed aggressive behavior as the infant matured. These techniques resulted in baboons which displayed subordinate behavior, showed positive reception to human contact (without evidence of negative stereotypic behavioral anomalies) and remained cooperative subjects for our investigations of short-term pulmonary clearance. The baboons generally were above average in weight in comparison to conspecifically-reared baboons of similar age, sex and species. Representative lung retention curves presented on one baboon demonstrate the feasibility of lung clearance studies in these hand-reared animals. Due to its suitability for unsedated studies, this baboon model may be considered for other types of laboratory investigations.     

The Ap-Bp blood groups of baboons

Four isoimmunized baboons each produced isoantibodies defining a number of blood factors of baboon blood of which two, A^p and B^p, have been most intensively studied. The two blood factors determine the A^P-B^P blood group system which, judging from its serological behavior, may be the baboon analogue of the human M-N system and the chimpanzee V-A-B system. Tests for A^P-B^P types of 592 baboons showed striking differences in the distributions of the four types among the four sub-species, Papio cynocephalus, Papio anubis, Papio ursinus (South Africa) and Papio papio (Senegal). The baboon A^P-B^P types could also be demonstrated by tests on the red cells of geladas (Theropithecus gelada). If one assumes inheritance by multiple allelic genes, then the existence of only a single gene O^p need be invoked for Papio ursinus, three alleles O^p, A^p and B^p for Papio cynocephalus and Papio anubis, but four alleles for Papio papio including an allele, very frequent in that subspecies, which determines an agglutinogen having both blood factors A^p and B^p.     

Healthy baboon with no upper jaw or nose: an extreme case of adaptability in the Kibale National Park,Uganda

We describe and document with digital images an adult female baboon (Papio anubis) from the Kibale National Park, Uganda, who was missing all but the basal part of her upper jaw and nose, i.e., no premaxilla and very little of the maxilla and nasal bones. She appeared otherwise healthy, well integrated into a social group, and apparently reproducing, based on the fact that she was grooming a juvenile who suckled from her and that she appeared to be pregnant. Her extreme deformity raises numerous questions and demonstrates the highly adaptable capabilities of wild baboons.     

Mitochondrial DNA phylogeny of the Old-World monkey tribe Papionini.

The evolution of the Old World monkey tribe Papionini, composed of macaques, baboons, mandrills, drills, and mangabeys, was examined using mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) sequence data on the cytochrome oxidase subunit II gene. When analyzed cladistically, these data support a baboon clade of savannah (Papio) plus gelada (Theropithecus) baboons, as well as a clade containing drill (Mandrillus) plus mangabey (Cerocebus) genera. This result stands in opposition to most morphological phylogenies, which break up the baboon clade by placing Papio and Mandrillus as sister taxa and Theropithecus as a more distantly related lineage. Analyses of COII gene sequences also suggest that the papionin ancestral stock divided into two lineages, one leading to macaques and the other to the purely African genera. From a molecular evolutionary perspective, the papionin COII gene sequences reveal a pattern of amino acid replacements concentrated in the regions spanning the mitochondrial membrane.     

A genetic linkage map of the baboon (Papio hamadryas) genome based on human microsatellite polymorphisms

A first-generation genetic linkage map of the baboon (Papio hamadryas) genome was developed for use in biomedical and evolutionary genetics. Pedigreed baboons (n = 694) were selected from the breeding colony maintained by the Southwest Foundation for Biomedical Research. To facilitate comparison with the human genome, the baboon linkage map consists primarily of human microsatellite loci amplified using published human PCR primers. Genotypes for 325 human microsatellites and 6 novel baboon microsatellites were used in linkage analyses performed with the MultiMap expert system. The resulting sex-averaged meiotic recombination map covers all 20 baboon autosomes, with average spacing among loci of 7.2 cM. Direct comparison among homologous (orthologous) loci reveals that, for 7 human autosomes, locus order is conserved between humans and baboons. For the other 15 autosomes, one or more rearrangements distinguish the two genomes. The total centimorgan distances among homologous markers are 28.0% longer in the human genome than in the baboon, suggesting that rates of recombination may be higher in humans. This baboon linkage map is the first reported for any nonhuman primate species and creates opportunities for mapping quantitative trait loci in baboons, as well as for comparative evolutionary analyses of genome structure.     

A 4-year summary of the nonsurgical recovery of baboon embryos: A report on 498 eggs

A nonsurgical embryo recovery procedure, developed to allow the economical acquisition of cleavage stage baboon embryos, has been successfully used for 4 years. With this technique, 498 eggs have been recovered from 979 uterine flushes (50.9%) on 71 baboons. Of 467 eggs recovered from mated baboons, 290 (62.1%) were fertilized. Papio anubis females provided a higher percentage of fertilized eggs (75.3%) than did Papio hamadryas (47.8%) or Papio cynocephalus (44.3%) females following exposure to males during estrus, although sexual preference may be responsible for the reduced fertilization rate in the P. cynocephalus females. Recovery rates from individual baboons ranged from 0% (n = 11) to between 66% and 93% for ten baboons from each of which 12–33 eggs have been recovered. Fertilized eggs were at the two-cell (n = 23) to blastocyst (n = 53) stage at recovery 1–6 days postdeturgescence (PD) of the sex skin, with morulae (n = 84) being the most frequent cell stage recovered (30%). The optimum time for performing the procedure was the third day PD, when 113 (40%) embryos were recovered. The abilities of baboons to become pregnant and to provide fertilized embryos were significantly related (P < 0.005), allowing the embryo recovery technique to be used as a screening procedure for evaluating baboon fertility.     

Genomewide ancestry and divergence patterns from low‐coverage sequencing data reveal a complex history of admixture in wild baboons

Naturally occurring admixture has now been documented in every major primate lineage, suggesting its key role in primate evolutionary history. Active primate hybrid zones can provide valuable insight into this process. Here, we investigate the history of admixture in one of the best‐studied natural primate hybrid zones, between yellow baboons (Papio cynocephalus) and anubis baboons (Papio anubis) in the Amboseli ecosystem of Kenya. We generated a new genome assembly for yellow baboon and low‐coverage genomewide resequencing data from yellow baboons, anubis baboons and known hybrids (n = 44). Using a novel composite likelihood method for estimating local ancestry from low‐coverage data, we found high levels of genetic diversity and genetic differentiation between the parent taxa, and excellent agreement between genome‐scale ancestry estimates and a priori pedigree, life history and morphology‐based estimates (r² = 0.899). However, even putatively unadmixed Amboseli yellow individuals carried a substantial proportion of anubis ancestry, presumably due to historical admixture. Further, the distribution of shared vs. fixed differences between a putatively unadmixed Amboseli yellow baboon and an unadmixed anubis baboon, both sequenced at high coverage, is inconsistent with simple isolation–migration or equilibrium migration models. Our findings suggest a complex process of intermittent contact that has occurred multiple times in baboon evolutionary history, despite no obvious fitness costs to hybrids or major geographic or behavioural barriers. In combination with the extensive phenotypic data available for baboon hybrids, our results provide valuable context for understanding the history of admixture in primates, including in our own lineage.     

The isolation of herpesvirus from trigeminal ganglia of normal baboons (Papio cynocephalus).

A herpesvirus was isolated from the trigeminal ganglia of three of six normal baboons (Papio cynocephalus). This virus possessed the virologic characteristics of SA8, A herpesvirus known to be indigenous to the baboon.     

The collection of biomedical specimens from baboons (Papio sp.) Kenya, 1966

This report, the second in a series on field trips to Kenya, Africa, provides baseline information on the microbiology and parasitology of the baboon (Papio sp.) as this animal exists in its native habitat. Specimens were collected for bacteriology, mycology, parasitology, pathology, and virology as well as for a number of ancillary biomedical purposes from three major geographic areas in Kenya. Preliminary compilations of data and information obtained during the course of field studies indicate varying relationships between the presence of infective agents and parasites and the areas from which baboons were captured. It has been shown clearly that ecologic factors influence the physical appearance of the animal as well as their microbial flora and parasite fauna. The close spatial relationship of the baboon to man as well as to other animals, both wild and domestic, very probably accounts for an interchange of organisms and exerts influences on potentials for transmission and propagation of parasites. Data collected from such field studies, when integrated with those obtained as a result of longitudinal studies on baboons maintained in captivity over a five year period, plus various taxonomic and basic biomedical considerations, will be of paramount importance for establishing the baboon as a model for studies on human diseases.     

The Influence of Social Systems on Patterns of Mitochondrial DNA Variation in Baboons

Behavior is influenced by genes but can also shape the genetic structure of natural populations. Investigating this link is of great importance because behavioral processes can alter the genetic diversity on which selection acts. Gene flow is one of the main determinants of the genetic structure of a population and dispersal is the behavior that mediates gene flow. Baboons (genus Papio) are among the most intensely studied primate species and serve as a model system to investigate the evolution of social systems using a comparative approach. The general mammalian pattern of male dispersal and female philopatry has thus far been found in baboons, with the exception of hamadryas baboons (Papio hamadryas). As yet, the lack of data on Guinea baboons (Papio papio) creates a taxonomic gap in genus-wide comparative analyses. In our study we investigated the sex-biased dispersal pattern of Guinea baboons in comparison to hamadryas, olive, yellow, and chacma baboons using sequences of the maternally transmitted mitochondrial hypervariable region I. Analyzing whole-range georeferenced samples (N = 777), we found strong evidence for female-biased gene flow in Guinea baboons and confirmed this pattern for hamadryas baboons, as shown by a lack of genetic-geographic structuring. In addition, most genetic variation was found within and not among demes, in sharp contrast to the pattern observed in matrilocal primates including the other baboon taxa. Our results corroborate the notion that the Guinea baboons’ social system shares some important features with that of hamadryas baboons, suggesting similar evolutionary forces have acted to distinguish them from all other baboons.     

Fibrinopeptides A and B of baboons (Papio anubis, Papio hamadryas, and Theropithecus gelada): their amino acid sequences and evolutionary rates and a molecular phylogeny for the baboons

Amino acid sequences of fibrinopeptides A and B from savanna baboons, Papio anubis and Papio hamadryas, and highland baboon, Theropithecus gelada, were established. The sequences of the fibrinopeptides A from the three baboons were identical: (sequence: see text) The fibrinopeptides B were composed of 9 residues and demonstrated the sequence: (sequence see text) where X3 = Arg in P. anubis, His in P. hamadryas, and Gly in Th. gelada. Position-3 of the B peptides was the only replacement site observed among the 25 amino acid residues in both fibrinopeptides from the baboons. Based on these sequences, a molecular phylogeny for the three species of baboons was deduced. The evolutionary rates of the peptides B of the baboons and macaques were also estimated. It was observed that the fibrinopeptides changed at an uneven rate during the evolution of old-world monkeys, i.e., baboons and macaques.