ABO Blood groups in cebidae (Platyrrhini,Primates) from the Rio Jamari Region

Blood and saliva samples were collected from 84Aotus azarae boliviensis, 31Ateles paniscus chamek, 130Callicebus brunneus, 130Cebus apella, 117Pithecia irrorata irrorata, and 117Saimiri ustus. Saliva samples were investigated for human ABH antigens by the standard hemagglutination inhibition test. Two species,P. irrorata andC. brunneus showed monomorphism, presenting only the A blood group. Among the polymorphic species,A. paniscus andC. apella presented theO (30 and 3) and A (1 and 127) phenotypes, and the B (80) and AB (4) phenotypes were detected inA. azarae. S. ustus was the only species that presented all the four phenotypes. The observed distribution was as expected assuming Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium to be present in those species that could be tested. The ABH substances were titrated and a comparison among species was made. Serum samples were used to detect natural antibodies and the results showed some disagreement between serum and saliva phenotypes.     

Polyspecific associations between squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus) and other primates in eastern Amazonia

One of the most common types of polyspecific association observed in Neotropical primate communities is that between squirrel monkeys (Saimiri) and capuchins (Cebus). The present study focused on association patterns in two Saimiri sciureus groups in eastern Brazilian Amazonia, between March and October, 2009. The associations were analyzed in terms of the species involved, the degree of association, and niche breadth and overlap. The study involved two S. sciureus groups (B4 and GI) on the right and left bank of the Tocantins River, respectively, within the area of the Tucuruí reservoir in southeastern Pará. Relations between species were classified as associations (individuals within 50 m and moving in the same direction), and encounters (individuals within 50 m and no coordinated movement). Group B4 was in association with Cebus apella during 100% of monitoring, and with Chiropotes satanas in 20.2%. By contrast, Group GI associated with Cebus 54.8% of the time, and with Chiropotes utahickae 2.5%. Encounters with Alouatta belzebul and Saguinus niger were recorded at both sites, with Aotus azarae and Dasyprocta prymnolopha at B4, and with Callicebus moloch, Dasyproct aleporina, Mazama gouazoubira, and Nasua nasua at GI. Overall, Saimiri had a broader niche than Cebus in terms of vertical spacing and diet, but not for substrate use. This pattern did not appear to be affected by association. While group GI spent significantly (P < 0.05) more time in association with Cebus during the wet season, group B4 associated with Chiropotes more during the dry season. Despite the higher association rates, niche overlap was greater for all variables at B4. This may reflect differences in the ranging and foraging patterns at the two sites, and the varying potential benefits of association for Saimiri.     

DNA sequencing of 13 cytokine gene fragments of Aotus infulatus and Saimiri sciureus, two non-human primate models for malaria

Aotus and Saimiri are non-human primate models recommended by the World Health Organization for experimental studies in malaria, especially for vaccine pre-clinical trials. However, research using these primates is hindered by the lack of specific reagents to evaluate immune responses to infection or vaccination. As a step toward developing molecular tools for cytokine expression studies in these species, primer pairs for 18 cytokine gene fragments were designed based on human DNA sequences and used to amplify the corresponding genes in Aotus infulatus and Saimiri sciureus genomic DNA samples. IFNγ, TNFα, LTA, IL2, IL3, IL4, IL5, IL6, IL10, IL12, IL13, CSF2 and TGFβ2 gene fragments were amplified and sequenced. Primer pairs for IL8, IL17, IL18, IL27 and MIF failed to generate amplification products. When compared to the available corresponding human and non-human primate sequences, most--except IL3 and IL4--showed identity degrees above 90%. Small variations in sequence can help to explain the failure to amplify certain genes or the amplification only at lower annealing temperatures as compared to human DNA samples for several primer pairs. The sequences made available provide the basis for designing molecular tools such as primers for real time PCR specific for A. infulatus and/or S. sciureus. The nucleotide sequences reported in this paper have been submitted to the GenBank nucleotide sequence database and have been assigned accession numbers DQ985386 to DQ985389, DQ989356 to DQ989369, FJ89020 to FJ89024, and FJ89029.     

Development of a polymorphic strain of Plasmodium vivax in monkeys.

A strain of Plasmodium vivax from Thailand with a polymorphic repeat unit of the circumsporozoite protein was established in Saimiri sciureus boliviensis and 3 species of Aotus monkeys. All 11 attempts to transmit infection via sporozoite inoculation, 4 times to splenectomized S. sciureus boliviensis, 2 times to splenectomized Aotus nancymai, and 5 times to intact Saimiri monkeys, were successful. Anopheles freeborni, Anopheles stephensi, Anopheles dirus, and Anopheles gambiae mosquitoes were infected by feeding on parasitemic blood from a chimpanzee and an Aotus azarae boliviensis monkey. Our results indicate that this strain may be useful in antisporozoite vaccine trials.     

Genetic and nongenetic influences on the ABH and Lea antigen levels of saliva and milk.

The saliva and milk of 250 parturient women were studied in relation to ABH antigen levels; part of the sample was also investigated for the Lewis (Lea) substance. The levels of A and B are higher in saliva, and those of H and Lea higher in milk. The H average salivary titers presented the relationship O greater than A2 greater than A1 greater than B greater than AB, but these differences were not present in milk. In addition, the salivary levels of A and B are similar in individuals of these groups but B greater than A in AB persons, and A1 greater than A2; while in milk A greater than B in A, B and AB subjects, and A1 approximately equal to A2. The amount of Lea substance depends of the ABH secretor status in both secretions; but independently of this difference, the average titers were always higher in milk. Correlation coefficients between the levels observed in the two secretions are statistically significant for the A substance in A persons (0.46), H in B (0.58) and Lea in all subjects tested (0.47). A stepwise multiple regression analysis performed to verify the influence of four genetic and six nongenetic variables in the ABH levels of both fluids indicated only one consistent modifying factor: ABO type.     

Studies of the Sal I strain of Plasmodium vivax in the squirrel monkey (Saimiri sciureus)

The Sal I strain of Plasmodium vivax was successfully adapted to three phenotypes of the squirrel monkey, Saimiri sciureus. Through five linear blood passages, parasitemias in excess of 200,000/mm3 blood were attained; Bolivian phenotype Saimiri appear to develop higher peak parasitemias. Sporozoites of the Sal I strain inoculated intravenously produced patent parasitemias in all five squirrel monkeys challenged, with prepatent periods ranging from 21 to 38 days. Anopheles freeborni and An. gambiae were the most susceptible of eight anopheline species fed on infected squirrel monkeys. As a model for in vivo studies of P. vivax the Sal I strain in Saimiri has great potential.     

Platelet kinetics and other hematological profiles in experimental Plasmodium falciparum infection: a comparative study between Saimiri and Aotus monkeys.

Levels of platelets and other hematological values were monitored in 21 Saimiri and 12 Aotus monkeys over a period of three weeks post-infection with monkey-adapted Indochina CDC-1 strain of Plasmodium falciparum. In both Saimiri sciureus boliviensis and Aotus nancymai karyotype-1 monkeys the severest thrombocytopenia was observed at 14 days post-infection coinciding with peak parasitemia, neutropenia, lymphocytosis, and anemia associated with severe hemoglobinemia and elevated fibrinogen degeneration products(FDP's). MCH and MCV profiles in Aotus monkeys decreased with ascending parasitemia. In contrast, these parameters in Saimiri were characterized by a significant compensatory increase correlating with parasitemia. In general, thrombocytopenia was one of the earliest clinical manifestations of the infection with the platelets returning to normal levels shortly after peak parasitemia at 14 days. Platelet kinetics had a strong correlation with hematologic and parasitologic values in the Aotus model. No consistent associations were observed between platelet kinetics and other parameters in the Saimiri model. These data indicate that the Aotus model for malaria is more predictable than the Saimiri. Further, platelet turnover rates and recovery provide a useful prognostic parameter during malaria infection. The results are discussed in relation to the value of the two species of monkeys as models for the pathogenesis of human malaria.     

Housing and care of monkeys and apes in laboratories: adaptations allowing essential species-specific behaviour

During the last two decades an increasing amount of attention has been paid to the housing and care of monkeys and apes in laboratories, as has been done with the housing and care of other categories of captive animals. The purpose of this review is to develop recommendations for adaptations of housing and care from our knowledge of the daily behavioural activity of monkeys and apes in natural conditions and in enriched laboratory conditions. This review deals mainly with adaptations of daily housing and care with respect to behaviour, and it is restricted to commonly-used species: Callitrichidae (Callitrix jacchus, Saguinus oedipus); Cebidae (Aotus trivirgatus, Saimiri sciureus, Cebus apella); Cercopithecidae (Macaca fascicularis, M. mulatta, M. nemestrina, M. arctoides, Chlorocebus aethiops, Papio hamadryas, P. cynocephalus); Pongidae (Pan troglodytes).     

Adaptation of the AMRU-1 strain of Plasmodium vivax to Aotus and Saimiri monkeys and to four species of anopheline mosquitoes.

A chloroquine-resistant strain of Plasmodium vivax (AMRU-1) from Papua New Guinea has been adapted to grow in 4 species of Aotus monkeys (Aotus lemurinus griseimembra, Aotus vaciferans, Aotus nancymai, and Aotus azarae boliviensis), hybrid Aotus monkeys, and Saimiri boliviensis monkeys. Whereas it was possible to infect Saimiri monkeys with this parasite by inoculation of parasitized erythrocytes, only 42% of Saimiri monkeys became infected, compared to 92% of Aotus monkeys attempted. Comparative mosquito feedings showed that only A. vociferans, A. l. griseimembra, and Saimiri boliviensis monkeys produced infections in mosquitoes. Oocysts were observed on the guts of the 4 species of mosquitoes used (Anopheles gambiae, Anopheles stephensi, Anopheles freeborni, and Anopheles dirus), but sporozoite transmission was effected only with the intravenous inoculation of sporozoites from An. dirus into an A. l. griseimembra monkey.     

Lewis phenotypes and secretor character in the "Castilla la Nueva"-region (Spain). ABH and Lewis antigen levels in salivary secretion

In 1980 blood and saliva samples were taken from Spanish students of the University of Madrid. Red cells were analysed for A1B2BO and Lewis blood groups. Saliva samples were tested to detect the specific group substances ABH, Lea and Leb. A slightly higher frequency of the "le" gene (0.419) was found in our sample as compared to other Spanish samples. The phenotype frequencies of ABH secretors (77.2%) and non-secretors (22.8%) are in the range of other European populations. The levels of A and B antigens of individuals belonging to these blood groups were similar, whereas the average titration of the H substance showed the relation O greater than A2 greater than A1 greater than A1B greater than B. Analysis of variance proved this heterogeneity to be statistically significant. The amount of Lea substance in non-secretors was higher than in secretors. This shows again that the ABH secretor status has some influence on the quantity of this antigen. The average titration of the Leb substance in secretors was higher than that of Lea in individuals belonging to O, A and AB blood groups, but not in those with blood group B.     

DNA fingerprinting in three species of neotropical primates

DNA fingerprinting allows the simultaneous detection of a large number of hypervariable loci consisting of highly polymorphic tandem repeat units that are extensively dispersed in the genome. With the 33.6 human minisatellite probe, hypervariable fragments were detected, for the first time, in the genome of three different species of wild-caught neotropical primates: Aotus infulatus, Aotus azarae, and Cebus apella. As in the human, these species were highly polymorphic, showing distinctive, individual-specific patterns. Estimates of relatedness within each group were calculated from interspecific comparisons based on the number of shared fragments between individuals. This work shows that the 33.6 human minisatellite probe can be very useful for increasing our understanding of population dynamics and behavior of these species in their natural habitat. © 1996 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Anatomical distribution of developing trophozoites and schizonts of Plasmodium vivax in Aotus lemurinus lemurinus and Saimiri sciureus

Organ distribution of developing trophozoite- and schizont-infected erythrocytes of Plasmodium vivax and night monkeys, Aotus lemurinus lemurinus, and squirrel monkeys, Saimiri sciureus, was determined. The primary site for the infection in both species was the splenic vasculature. Secondary organ involvement differed between hosts although some overlapping did occur.     

Blood typing in Saimiri sciureus monkeys: influence of anti-red blood cell alloantibodies on Plasmodium falciparum parasitaemia in vivo

The Saimiri sciureus monkey is a well-established host for experimental studies with human malaria parasites. During the course of iterative inoculations with Plasmodium falciparum parasitised red blood cells (RBC), anti-RBC alloantibodies were detected in the sera of two of eight Saimiri monkeys. These anti-RBC antibodies were further used to investigate RBC phenotypes in 35 colony-reared Saimiri monkeys by flow cytometry. Three RBC phenotypes (named I-III) were observed. Their distribution was I (86%), II (11%) and III (3%). Using the Palo Alto FUP-2 strain, a variant P. falciparum line insensitive to hyperimmune serum and the passive transfer of anti-RBC alloantibodies, a dramatic drop in parasite growth was documented in an incompatible monkey.     

Brightness preference in nocturnal and diurnal South American monkeys.

In a test situation where choice was not tied to reinforcement, both squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus) and owl monkeys (Aotus trivirgatus) consistently chose to view the more luminant of a pair of lights. Over a two log unit range of luminance, the degree of preference in both species for the brighter of two lights was found to depend on their difference in luminance and not on their actual luminances.     

Studies on a newly isolated strain of Plasmodium brasilianum in Aotus and Saimiri monkeys and different anophelines

A strain of Plasmodium brasilianum was isolated from an Aotus vociferans monkey from Peru. The parasite readily infected Aotus monkeys from Bolivia and Columbia and Saimiri sciureus monkeys from Peru and Bolivia. Highest level mosquito infections were obtained by feeding on the Saimiri monkeys. The most susceptible mosquito was Anopheles freeborni, followed by Anopheles dirus, Anopheles stephensi, Anopheles gambiae, Anopheles culicifacies, Anopheles maculatus and Anopheles albimanus. Anopheles quadrimaculatus were also susceptible to infection. Degenerating oocysts were observed in An. dirus mosquitoes infected with this parasite. Transmission via the bites of infected An. maculatus mosquitoes was obtained to 3 Bolivian Saimiri monkeys; prepatent periods were 27, 27, and 29 days.     

Hypometabolism in Aotus trivirgatus (Primates, Plathyrhini, Cebidae)]

The standard metabolism of Aotus trivirgatus (Night monkey, Owl monkey) is 22.5 to 46.2 per cent below Kleiber's prevision curve for mammals, which applies to other cebid monkeys like Saimiri sciureus and Alouatta. However the metabolic rate of Aotus is not reduced to the extent found in two hypometabolic prosimians Perodicticus potto and Nycticebus coucang. The low metabolism in Aotus is associated with a normal body temperature and a thick fur of high insulating power. These results are discussed.     

RFLP analysis of mtDNA from six platyrrhine genera: phylogenetic inferences

This study investigates the phylogenetic relationships of 10 species of platyrrhine primates using RFLP analysis of mtDNA. Three restriction enzymes were used to determine the restriction site haplotypes for a total of 276 individuals. Phylogenetic analysis using maximum parsimony was employed to construct phylogenetic trees. We found close phylogenetic relationships between Alouatta, Lagothrix and Ateles. We also found a close relationship between Cebus and Aotus, with Saimiri clustering with the atelines. Haplotype diversity was found in four of the species studied, in Cebus albifrons, Saimiri sciureus, Lagothrix lagotricha and Ateles fusciceps. These data provide additional information concerning the phylogenetic relationships between these platyrrhine genera and species.     

Chromosomal distribution of interstitial telomeric sequences in nine neotropical primates (Platyrrhini): possible implications in evolution and phylogeny

To localize interstitial telomeric sequences (ITSs) and to test whether their pattern of distribution could be linked to chromosomal evolution, we hybridized telomeric sequence probes (peptide nucleic acid, PNA) on metaphases of New World monkeys: Callithrix argentata, Callithrix jacchus, Cebuella pygmaea, Saguinus oedipus, Saimiri sciureus, Aotus lemurinus griseimembra, Aotus nancymaae (Cebidae), Lagothrix lagotricha (Atelidae) and Callicebus moloch (Pithecidae), characterized by a rapid radiation and a high rate of chromosomal rearrangements. Our analysis of the probe signal localization allowed us to show in all the species analysed, as normally, the telomeric location at the terminal ends of chromosomes and unexpected signal distributions in some species. Indeed, in three species among the nine studied, Aotus lemurinus griseimembra, Aotus nancymaae (Cebidae) and Lagothrix lagotricha (Atelidae), we showed a high variability in terms of localization and degree of amplification of interstitial telomeric sequences, especially for the ones found at centromeric or pericentromeric positions (het‐ITS). A comparative analysis, between species, of homologous chromosomes to human syntenies, on which we have found positive interspersed PNA signals, allowed us to explain the observed pattern of ITS distribution as results of chromosomal rearrangements in the neotropical primates analysed. This evidence permitted us to discuss the possible implication of ITSs as phylogenetic markers for closely related species. Moreover, reviewing previous literature data of ITSs distribution in Primates and in the light of our results, we suggest an underestimation of ITSs and highlight the importance of the molecular cytogenetics approach in characterizing ITSs, which role is still not clarified.     

H-deficient blood groups ( Bombay) of Reunion Island.

Forty-two H-deficient individuals (lacking H antigen on erythrocytes) with anti-H in their sera were found on Reunion Island. A, B, and AB Bombay subjects had small but detectable amounts of A and/or B antigens on erythrocytes. All the H-deficient phenotypes tested were nonsecretors of ABH in their saliva, and one-third were Lewis negative. Fifty-three of the 108 (49%) unaffected members in the 14 Bombay pedigrees analyzed were se/se, showing that the families were selected for the nonsecretor trait, and suggesting that the Bombay probands used to select the families have se/se genotype. In accordance with this concept, all the children from Bombay nonsecretor x unaffected nonsecretor matings were se/se. Segregation of H and Se is compatible with the genetic model proposing that Se and H are closely linked structural genes, and the analysis of the present and previously published Bombay pedigrees strongly supports this model.     

A survey for helminth parasites in feral New World non-human primate populations and its comparison with parasitological data from man in the region

A survey for helminth parasites in feral New World non-human primates was conducted and compared with parasitological data from man in the region. A total of 835 fecal samples were collected from feral Aotus nancymae, A. vociferans, Saguinus labiatus, S. mystax, Saimiri boliviensis peruviensis, S. sciureus macrodon, Lagothrix lagotricha and Cacajao calvus rubicundus. In addition, adult parasites were collected from necropsies performed on monkeys that died during quarantine and in captivity. Helminth parasites shared by non-human primates and man in Peru were Ancylostoma braziliensis and Ascaris lumbricoides, found in a captive L. lagotricha; Necator americanus, found in a captive C. calvus rubicundus; Hymenolepis diminuta, found in feral Aotus spp. and S. mystax; and a single Trichuris spp. specimen found in a feral S. sciureus macrodon.