The interaction of bovine pancreatic deoxyribonuclease I and skeletal muscle actin

The rate of exchange of actin-bound nucleotide is decreased by a factor of about 20 when actin is complexed with DNAase I without affecting the binding constant of calcium for actin. Binding constants of DNAase I to monomeric and filamentous actin were determined to be 5 X 10(8) M-1 and 1.2 X 10(4) M-1 respectively. The depolymerisation of F-actin by DNAase I appears to be due to a shift in the G-F equilibrium of actin by DNAase I. Inhibition of the DNA-degrading activity of DNAase I by G-actin is of the partially competitive type.     

Investigation of the actin-deoxyribonuclease I interaction using a pyrene-conjugated actin derivative

The interaction of deoxyribonuclease I with muscle actin was studied with the aid of a pyrenyl derivative of the actin [Kouyama, T., & Mihashi, K. (1981) Eur. J. Biochem. 114, 33-38] that increases its quantum yield by an order of magnitude on polymerization. It is shown that this derivative copolymerizes with unlabeled G-actin in a random manner and will also bind to deoxyribonuclease with inhibition of enzymic activity. The derivative affords a highly sensitive means of following nucleated polymerization. Preincubation of F-actin with deoxyribonuclease at a concentration of 5% or less of that of total subunits causes inhibition of polymerization of additional G-actin onto the filaments. In red cell membranes that contain stabilized short filaments of actin such that the concentration of filament ends is large relative to monomers, complete inhibition of nucleated polymerization of G-actin is achieved by preincubation with deoxyribonuclease. The results indicate that binding of DNase occurs at the "plus" ends of the actin filaments. Competition with cytochalasin E, which is known to have a high affinity for the plus or preferentially growing ends of F-actin, can be observed. Whereas the activity of deoxyribonuclease in the 1:1 complex with G-actin is inhibited, the enzyme attached to the ends of filaments appears to be fully active. This causes a reduction in the inhibition of enzymic activity with increasing F-actin concentration, presumably by reason of a change in the partition of the enzyme between monomers and filament ends. The degree of inhibition increases with time, however, as the actin depolymerizes. Implications for measurements of actin monomer concentrations by the deoxyribonuclease assay procedure are considered.     

The interaction of hemin with skeletal muscle actin

The ability of actin to interact with hemin was studied. It was found that the Soret absorption band of hemin changes in the presence of actin and that hemin is capable of quenching the fluorescence intensity of actin. These findings were indicative of hemin binding to actin. The binding constant for the high affinity site was calculated to be 5.3 X 10(6) M-1. The amounts of native G- and F-actin were estimated by their DNAase I inhibition activity. It was observed that the binding of hemin to G-actin is followed by a slow decrease in the ability of actin to inhibit DNAase I activity and to polymerize upon addition of salts. Binding of hemin to F-actin resulted in a gradual depolymerization of the filaments, to an inactivated form, as expressed by a reduction in the ability of hemin-bound F-actin to inhibit DNAase I activity in the absence as well as in the presence of guanidine-HCl. Electron microscopy studies further corroborated these findings by demonstrating that: (1) hemin-bound G-actin failed to show formation of polymers when salts were added; (2) a marked reduction in the amount of actin polymers was observed in the specimens examined 24 h after mixing with hemin. It is suggested that the elevated amounts of free hemin formed under pathological conditions, might be toxic to cells by interfering with actin polymerization cycles.     

Estimation of denaturation of actin in the actin-myosin complex treated with various conditions by DNAase I inhibition assay.

1. Experiments were conducted to evaluate whether DNAase I (EC 3.1.4.5) inhibition assay was a valuable tool to study the denaturation of actin in the actin-myosin complex treated with various conditions. 2. A sample containing F-actin or natural actomyosin(myosin B) was treated with KI-ATP solution to convert a form which inhibits DNAase I as effectively as G-actin, and the total amount of native actin was determined by DNAase I inhibition assay. 3. On the basis of the values for remaining native actin in the sample obtained by this assay, a percentage of denaturation of actin during treatment was calculated. 4. The present result demonstrated that DNAase I inhibition assay was easy to perform, very sensitive (0.5-2.0 microgram actin) and highly specific for estimating denaturation of actin in the actin-myosin complex treated with heat or high salt concentrations. 5. In addition, the use of DNAase I and standard G-actin preparations stored frozen at -80 degrees C for the assay was found to be possible within a fixed period of time (about 2 weeks), which was helpful in monitoring the denaturation process of actin treated under various conditions for a long period.     

Cycling of actin assembly in synaptosomes and neurotransmitter release

We have investigated the regulation of actin assembly in whole mouse brain synaptosomes and how that regulation modulates neurotransmitter release. During a 30 s depolarization with high K+, filamentous actin (F-actin) levels, monitored by staining with rhodamine phalloidin, increase dramatically (up to 300% in 3 s), decrease, and increase once again. This F-actin cycling is regulated by pathways both dependent and independent of Ca2+ influx and is markedly affected by exposing synaptosomes to Li+, tetrodotoxin, and diacylglycerol. Measurement of [3H]norepinephrine release from synaptosomes containing entrapped agents that modulate actin assembly (DNAase I or phalloidin) indicates that actin depolymerization is necessary for normal release and that repolymerization limits release.     

Structural and dynamic states of actin in the erythrocyte

Analysis of the nucleotide tightly associated with isolated erythrocyte cytoskeletons show it to be ADP, rather then ATP. This confirms that at least a major part of the erythrocyte actin is in the F-form. A re-evaluation of the stoichiometry of spectrin and actin in the erythrocyte (taking account of a gross difference between the color responses of the two proteins on staining of electrophoretic gels) leads to values of 1x10(5) and 5x10(5) for the number of molecules of spectrin tetramer and actin respectively per cell. It has been found possible to perform spectrophotometric DNAase I assays fro actin on lysed whole cells. The concentration of monomeric actin at 0 degrees C is approximately 16 μg/ml packed cells. After washing the lysed cells the monomer pool is not re-established, indicating that only a small proportion of the actin subunits are free to dissociate. The actin monomer concentration in the cytosol remains unchanged after equilibration of the cells with cytochalasin E. The ability of actin-containing complexes in the membrane to nucleate the polymerization of added G-actin was measured fluorimetrically; it was found that membranes incubated with cytochalasin E were completely inert with respect to nucleating activity under conditions that favor appreciable growth at the slowly-growing (“pointed”) ends of free actin filaments. This suggests that these ends of the actin “protofilaments” in the red cell are blocked or sterically obstructed. After treatment of the membranes with guanidine hydrochloride under conditions that dissociate F-actin, the measured concentration of actin monomer rises to approximately 180 μg/ml of packed cells, which is nearly 70 percent of the total actin content. On treatment with trypsin in the presence of DNAase, the spectrin and 4.1 are extensively degraded, but the actin remains undamaged. This treatment, followed by exposure to guanidine hydrochloride, causes a further rise in the concentration of actin responsive to the DNAase assay to 250 μg/ml of cells, compared with 270 μg/ml estimated by densitometry of stained gels. The oligomeric complex, consisting of actin, spectrin, and 4.1, that is extracted from the membrane at low ionic strength, generates no detectable actin monomer after the same treatment. From literature data on the number of cytochalasin binding sites per cell and our value for the total actin content, we obtain a number-average degree of polymerization for actin in the membrane of 12-17. The results lead to a model for the structure of the cytoskeletal network and suggest some consequences of metabolic depletion.     

The inhibition of bovine and rat parotid deoxyribonuclease I by skeletal muscle actin. A biochemical and immunocytochemical study.

Rat and bovine parotid gland and pancreas contain deoxyribonuclease I (DNAase I) activities in different amounts. The DNAase I activity in tissue homogenates of bovine and rat parotid gland can be inhibited by addition of monomeric actin, as with the enzyme of bovine pancreas. The isolated DNAase I species from bovine and rat parotid gland differ in their molecular weights and also in their affinities for monomeric actin, being lowest for rat parotid DNAase I (5 X 10(6)M(-1). Antibodies raised against rat and bovine parotid and bovine pancreatic DNAase I can be used to study the subcellular localization of DNAase I in these tissues by indirect immunofluorescence. DNAase I was found to be confined solely to the secretory granules of the tissue from which it was isolated.     

Modification of Lys-237 on actin by 2,4-pentanedione. Alteration of the interaction of actin with tropomyosin

It has been possible to specifically label rabbit skeletal muscle actin at Lys-237 with 2,4-pentanedione, producing an enamine. This reaction can be reversed with hydroxylamine. The modification can be carried out with actin in either the G- or F-forms and does not affect polymerization-depolymerization. The modification does affect, however, the interaction of tropomyosin (Tm) with the modified F-actin. In the absence of Ca2+ and Mg2+ (mu = 0.12), Tm failed to bind to the modified F-actin whereas it did bind to unmodified F-actin (1 Tm:7 actins). Tm binding could be restored under these conditions by the addition of either troponin (Tn), Mg2+, or Mg2+ and Ca2+. Under certain conditions, Tm alone has been shown to inhibit actin-activated heavy meromyosin (HMM)-Mg2+-ATPase. This inhibition did not occur with the modified F-actin even though Tm was bound (approximately 1 Tm:7 actins). Even when Tn was added to this system (in the absence of Ca2+), no inhibition of ATPase could be observed. Thus, this modification appears to prevent F-actin X Tm from assuming the "blocking" inhibitory position (conformation). In addition, Tn appears to enhance the activation of heavy meromyosin-Mg2+-ATPase by the modified F-actin X Tm complex whether Ca2+ is present or not. This state may be analogous to the potentiated state (Murray, J. M., Knox, M. K., Trueblood, C. E., and Weber, A. (1982) Biochemistry 27, 906-915) seen with myosin subfragment 1-saturated actin at low ATP levels. Thus, using modified and unmodified F-actin, it is possible to produce three Tm X actin states: off (F-actin X Tm), on (modified F-actin X Tm), and "potentiated" (modified F-actin X Tm X Tn).     

Change in the actin-myosin subfragment 1 interaction during actin polymerization

To better characterize the conformational differences of G- and F-actin, we have compared the interaction between G- and F-actin with myosin subfragment 1 (S1) which had part of its F-actin binding site (residues 633-642) blocked by a complementary peptide or "antipeptide" (Chaussepied, P., and Morales, M. F. (1988) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 85, 7471-7475). Light scattering, sedimentation, and electron microscopy measurements showed that, with the antipeptide covalently attached to the S1 heavy chain, S1 was not capable of inducing G-actin polymerization in the absence of salt. Moreover, the antipeptide-carrying S1 did not change the fluorescence polarization of 5-[2-(iodoacetyl)-aminoethyl]aminonaphthalene-1-sulfonic acid (1,5-IAEDANS)-labeled G-actin or of 1,5-IAEDANS-labeled actin dimer, compared to the control S1. This result, interpreted as a lack of interaction between G-actin and antipeptide-carrying S1, was confirmed further by the following experiments: in the presence of G-actin, antipeptide.S1 heavy chain was not protected against trypsin and papain proteolysis, and G-actin could not be cross-linked to antipeptide.S1 by 1-ethyl-3[-3-(dimethylamino)propyl]carbodiimide. In contrast, similar experiments showed that antipeptide.S1 was able to interact with nascent F-actin and with F-actin. Thus, blocking the stretch 633-642 of S1 heavy chain by the antipeptide strongly inhibits G-actin-S1 interaction but only slightly alters F-actin-S1 contact. We, therefore postulate that this stretch of skeletal S1 heavy chain is essential for G-actin-S1 interaction and that the G-F transformation generates new S1 binding site(s) on the actin molecule.     

Mapping the ADF/cofilin binding site on monomeric actin by competitive cross-linking and peptide array: evidence for a second binding site on monomeric actin

The binding sites for actin depolymerising factor (ADF) and cofilin on G-actin have been mapped by competitive chemical cross-linking using deoxyribonuclease I (DNase I), gelsolin segment 1 (G1), thymosin beta4 (Tbeta4), and vitamin D-binding protein (DbP). To reduce ADF/cofilin induced actin oligomerisation we used ADP-ribosylated actin. Both vitamin D-binding protein and thymosin beta4 inhibit binding by ADF or cofilin, while cofilin or ADF and DNase I bind simultaneously. Competition was observed between ADF or cofilin and G1, supporting the hypothesis that cofilin preferentially binds in the cleft between sub-domains 1 and 3, similar to or overlapping the binding site of G1. Because the affinity of G1 is much higher than that of ADF or cofilin, even at a 20-fold excess of the latter, the complexes contained predominantly G1. Nevertheless, cross-linking studies using actin:G1 complexes and ADF or cofilin showed the presence of low concentrations of ternary complexes containing both ADF or cofilin and G1. Thus, even with monomeric actin, it is shown for the first time that binding sites for both G1 and ADF or cofilin can be occupied simultaneously, confirming the existence of two separate binding sites. Employing a peptide array with overlapping sequences of actin overlaid by cofilin, we have identified five sequence stretches of actin able to bind cofilin. These sequences are located within the regions of F-actin predicted to bind cofilin in the model derived from image reconstructions of electron microscopical images of cofilin-decorated filaments. Three of the peptides map to the cleft region between sub-domains 1 and 3 of the upper actin along the two-start long-pitch helix, while the other two are in the DNase I loop corresponding to the site of the lower actin in the helix. In the absence of any crystal structures of ADF or cofilin in complex with actin, these studies provide further information about the binding sites on F-actin for these important actin regulatory proteins.     

The 50 kDa protein-actin complex from unfertilized sea-urchin (Strongylocentrotus purpuratus) eggs. Interaction with actin.

In the preceding paper [Golsteyn & Waisman (1989) Biochem. J. 257, 809-815] an EGTA-stable, Ca2+-binding heterodimer comprised of a 50 kDa protein and actin called '50K-A' was identified in the unfertilized eggs of the sea urchin Strongylocentrotus purpuratus. In the present paper we have documented the binding of 50K-A to DNAase I and the effect of 50K-A on the kinetics of actin polymerization. When 50K-A was added to pyrene-labelled rabbit skeletal-muscle actin and the salt concentration increased, the initial rate of actin polymerization was inhibited by a very low molar ratio of 50K-A to actin. Furthermore, the steady-state level of G-actin was increased in the presence of 50K-A, suggesting that 50K-A caps the preferred end of actin polymer, shifting the steady-state concentration to that of the non-preferred end. Dilution of F-actin to below its critical concentration into 50K-A resulted in a much slower rate of depolymerization, consistent with capping of the preferred end. In contrast with the Ca2+-dependent binding to DNAase, the effect of 50K-A on the kinetics of actin assembly and disassembly was Ca2+-independent. These results suggest that 50K-A is a novel actin-binding protein with some similarities to the severin/fragmin/gelsolin family of F-actin-capping proteins.     

Synaptopodin, a molecule involved in the formation of the dendritic spine apparatus, is a dual actin/alpha-actinin binding protein

Synaptopodin (SYNPO) is a cytoskeletal protein that is preferentially located in mature dendritic spines, where it accumulates in the spine neck and closely associates with the spine apparatus. Formation of the spine apparatus critically depends on SYNPO. To further determine its molecular action, we screened for cellular binding partners. Using the yeast two-hybrid system and biochemical assays, SYNPO was found to associate with both F-actin and alpha-actinin. Ectopic expression of SYNPO in neuronal and non-neuronal cells induced actin aggregates, thus confirming a cytoplasmic interaction with the actin cytoskeleton. Whereas F-actin association is mediated by a central SYNPO motif, binding to alpha-actinin requires the C-terminal domain. Notably, the alpha-actinin binding domain is also essential for dendritic targeting and postsynaptic accumulation of SYNPO in primary neurons. Taken together, our data suggest that dendritic spine accumulation of SYNPO critically depends on its interaction with postsynaptic alpha-actinin and that SYNPO may regulate spine morphology, motility and function via its distinct modes of association with the actin cytoskeleton.     

Nonenzymatic glycosylation of and oxidative damage to actin in vitro and in vivo

A study was made the influence exerted by non-enzymatic glycosylation (glycation) and oxidative destruction on structural and functional parameters of actin (free NH2-groups, advanced glycation end product and bityrosine cross-linking content, DNase inhibition by G-actin and myosin Mg(2+)-ATPase activation by F-actin). The functional properties of actin were shown to change under high molecular weight product formation and oxidative destruction: the extent of DNAase I inhibition decreases (from 70 to 40%) and the extent of myosin Mg(2+)-ATPase decreases (by 40%). Carnosine prevents actin oligomer formation and oxidative destruction which favours preservation of the protein functional properties.     

19F NMR study of the myosin and tropomyosin binding sites on actin

Actin was labeled with pentafluorophenyl isothiocyanate at Lys-61. The label was sufficiently small not to affect the rate or extent of actin polymerization unlike the much larger fluorescein 5-isothiocyanate which completely inhibits actin polymerization [Burtnick, L. D. (1984) Biochim. Biophys. Acta 791, 57-62]. Furthermore, the label resonances in the 376.3-MHz 19F NMR spectrum were unaffected by actin polymerization. However, the binding of the relaxing protein tropomyosin resulted in the fluorinated Lys-61 resonances broadening out beyond detection due to a substantial increase in the effective correlation time of the label. Similarly, the binding of myosin subfragment 1 to F-actin resulted in the dramatic broadening of the labeled Lys-61 resonances. Thus, Lys-61 on actin appears to be closely associated with the binding sites for both tropomyosin and myosin, suggesting that both these proteins can compete for the same site on actin. The other region of actin known to be involved in myosin binding, Cys-10, was found to be more remote from the actin-actin interfaces than Lys-61. Labels on Cys-10 exhibited substantially greater mobility than fluorescein 5-isothiocyanate attached to Lys-61 which appeared to be held down on the surface of the actin monomer. This may sterically hinder the actin-actin interaction about 1 nm from the tropomyosin/myosin binding site.     

Isolation, characterisation and crystallization of deoxyribonuclease I from bovine and rat parotid gland and its interaction with rabbit skeletal muscle actin

A purification procedure is described yielding DNase I from bovine and rat parotid glands of high homogeneity. The apparent molecular masses of the DNases I isolated have been found by sodium dodecyl sulfate/polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis to be 34 and 32 kDa for bovine and rat parotid DNase I, respectively, and thus differ from the enzyme isolated from bovine pancreas (31 kDa). By a number of different criteria concerning their enzymic behaviour, the isolated enzymes could be clearly classified as DNases I, i.e. endonucleolytic activity preferentially on native double-stranded DNA yielding 5'-oligonucleotides, a pH optimum at about 8.0, the dependence of their enzymic activity on divalent metal ions, their inhibition by 2-nitro-5-thiocyanobenzoic acid and by skeletal muscle actin. Comparison of their primary structure by analysis of their amino acid composition and also two-dimensional fingerprints and isoelectric focusing indicate gross similarities between the enzymes isolated from bovine pancreas and parotid, but distinct species differences, i.e. between the enzymes isolated from bovine and rat parotid. All the DNases I are glycoproteins. From bovine parotid DNase I crystals suitable for X-ray structure analysis could be obtained. The DNases I from both parotid sources specifically interact with monomeric actin forming 1:1 stoichiometric complexes. Their binding constants to monomeric actin differ, being 2 X 10(8) M-1 and 5.5 X 10(6) M-1 for bovine and rat parotid DNase I, respectively. Only the enzyme isolated from bovine sources is able to depolymerize filamentous actin.     

Proteolytic cleavage of actin within the DNase-I-binding loop changes the conformation of F-actin and its sensitivity to myosin binding

Effects of subtilisin cleavage of actin between residues 47 and 48 on the conformation of F-actin and on its changes occurring upon binding of myosin subfragment-1 (S1) were investigated by measuring polarized fluorescence from rhodamine-phalloidin- or 1, 5-IAEDANS-labeled actin filaments reconstructed from intact or subtilisin-cleaved actin in myosin-free muscle fibers (ghost fibers). In separate experiments, polarized fluorescence from 1, 5-IAEDANS-labeled S1 bound to non-labeled actin filaments in ghost fibers was measured. The measurements revealed differences between the filaments of cleaved and intact actin in the orientation of rhodamine probe on the rhodamine-phalloidin-labeled filaments, orientation and mobility of the C-terminus of actin, filament flexibility, and orientation and mobility of the myosin heads bound to F-actin. The changes in the filament flexibility and orientation of the actin-bound fluorophores produced by S1 binding to actin in the absence of ATP were substantially diminished by subtilisin cleavage of actin. The results suggest that loop 38-52 plays an important role, not only in maintaining the F-actin structure, but also in the conformational transitions in actin accompanying the strong binding of the myosin heads that may be essential for the generation of force and movement during actin-myosin interaction.     

Cross-linked long-pitch actin dimer forms stoichiometric complexes with gelsolin segment 1 and/or deoxyribonuclease I that nonproductively interact with myosin subfragment 1

Actin dimer cross-linked along the long pitch of the F-actin helix by N-(4-azido)-2-nitrophenyl (ANP) was purified by gel filtration. Purified dimers were found to polymerize on increasing the ionic strength, although at reduced rate and extent in comparison with native actin. Purified actin dimer interacts with the actin-binding proteins (ABPs) deoxyribonuclease I (DNase I) and gelsolin segment-1 (G1) as analyzed by gel filtration and native gel electrophoresis. Complex formation of the actin dimer with these ABPs inhibits its ability to polymerize. The interaction with rabbit skeletal muscle myosin subfragment 1 (S1) was analyzed for polymerized actin dimer and dimer complexed with gelsolin segment 1 or DNase I by measurement of the actin-stimulated myosin S1-ATPase and gel filtration. The data obtained indicate binding of subfragment 1 to actin dimer, albeit with considerably lower affinity than to F-actin. Polymerized actin dimer was able to stimulate the S1-ATPase activity to about 50% of the level of native F-actin. In contrast, the actin dimer complexed to DNase I or gelsolin segment 1 or to both proteins was unable to significantly stimulate the S1-ATPase. Similarly, G1:dimer complex at 20 microM stimulated the rate of release of subfragment 1 bound nucleotide (mant-ADP) only 1.6-fold in comparison to about 9-fold by native F-actin at a concentration of 0.5 microM. Using rapid kinetic techniques, a dissociation constant of 2.4 x 10 (-6) M for subfragment 1 binding to G1:dimer was determined in comparison to 3 x 10 (-8) M for native F-actin under identical conditions. Since the rate of association of subfragment 1 to G1:dimer was considerably lower than to native F-actin, we suspect that the ATP-hydrolysis by S1 was catalyzed before its association to the dimer. These data suggest an altered, nonproductive mode for the interaction of subfragment 1 with the isolated long-pitch actin dimer.     

Association of deoxyribonuclease I with the pointed ends of actin filaments in human red blood cell membrane skeletons

We have characterized the interaction of bovine pancreatic deoxyribonuclease I (DNase I) with the filamentous (F-)actin of red cell membrane skeletons stabilized with phalloidin. The hydrolysis of [3H]DNA was used to assay DNase I. We found that DNase I bound to a homogenous class of approximately equal to 2.4 X 10(4) sites/skeleton with an association rate constant of approximately 1 X 10(6) M-1 S-1 and a KD of 1.9 X 10(-9) M at 20 degrees C. Phalloidin lowered the dissociation constant by approximately 1 order of magnitude. The DNase I which sedimented with the skeletons was catalytically inactive but could be reactivated by dissociation from the actin. Actin and DNA bound to DNase I in a mutually exclusive fashion without formation of a ternary complex. Phalloidin-treated red cell F-actin resembled rabbit muscle G-actin in all respects tested. Since the DNase I binding capacity of the skeletons corresponded to the number of actin protofilaments previously estimated by other methods, it seemed likely that the enzyme binding site was confined to one end of the filament. We confirmed this premise by showing that elongating the red cell filaments with rabbit muscle actin monomers did not appreciably add to their capacity to bind or inhibit DNase I. Saturation of skeletons with cytochalasin D or gelsolin, avid ligands for the barbed end of actin filaments, did not reduce their binding of DNase I. Furthermore, neither cytochalasin D nor DNase I alone blocked all of the sites for addition of monomeric pyrene-labeled rabbit muscle G-actin to phalloidin-treated skeletons; however, a combination of the two agents did so. In the presence of phalloidin, the polymerization of 300 nM pyrenyl actin on nuclei constructed from 5 nM gelsolin and 25 nM rabbit muscle G-actin was completely inhibited by 35 nM DNase I but not by 35 nM cytochalasin D. We conclude that DNase I associates uniquely with and caps the pointed (slow-growing or negative) end of F-actin. These results imply that the amino-terminal, DNase I-binding domain of the actin protomer is oriented toward the pointed end and is buried along the length of the actin filament.     

Vitamin D-binding protein (Gc-globulin) binds actin

Actin, an ubiquitous highly conserved intracellular protein, and the serum vitamin D-binding protein (DBP) form tight 1:1 molar complexes in vitro. This interaction, which is not species-specific, explains the widespread occurrence of the 5-6 S protein responsible for the binding of 25-hydroxycholecalciferol in high speed supernatants of all nucleated tissues. Incubation of F-actin, the filamentous form of this protein, with DBP leads to depolymerization of the former. Actin, complexed with deoxyribonuclease I, retains its ability to bind DBP. Erythrocyte actin, prepared from red cell ghosts, also displays binding properties for DBP. The biological significance of this new interaction of actin is not yet understood.     

Arabidopsis phosphatidylinositol phosphate kinase 1 binds F-actin and recruits phosphatidylinositol 4-kinase beta1 to the actin cytoskeleton

The actin cytoskeleton can be influenced by phospholipids and lipid-modifying enzymes. In animals the phosphatidylinositol phosphate kinases (PIPKs) are associated with the cytoskeleton through a scaffold of proteins; however, in plants such an interaction was not clear. Our approach was to determine which of the plant PIPKs interact with actin and determine whether the PIPK-actin interaction is direct. Our results indicate that AtPIPK1 interacts directly with actin and that the binding is mediated through a predicted linker region in the lipid kinase. AtPIPK1 also recruits AtPI4Kbeta1 to the cytoskeleton. Recruitment of AtPI4Kbeta1 to F-actin was dependent on the C-terminal catalytic domain of phosphatidylinositol-4-phosphate 5-kinase but did not require the presence of the N-terminal 251 amino acids, which includes 7 putative membrane occupation and recognition nexus motifs. In vivo studies confirm the interaction of plant lipid kinases with the cytoskeleton and suggest a role for actin in targeting PIPKs to the membrane.